HT 

421 

B94 


burr  - 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  Ias1 
date  stamped  below 


cop.l 

Rural  organization . 


UT 

4Z.I 

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Cop. 


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JAN  3      193H 


:• 

MAY  1  8  1933 
OCT  1 

-JAN  2  9  193, 
JUN  g 


6 


OCT  30  1958 


RETD  BOOK  BOJC 


JAN  3  - 


10m-4,'28 


RURAL  ORGANIZATION 


THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON    •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON    •    BOMBAY    •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OP  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


RURAL 
ORGANIZATION 


BY 

WALTER  BURR 

PROFESSOR  OF  SOCIOLOGY   (FORMERLY  DIRECTOR  OF  RURAL 
SERVICE),  KANSAS  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1921 

All  Rights  Reserved 

59709 


PRINTED   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES    OF   AMERICA 


COPYXIGHT,    1921, 

BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
Set   up  and  printed.     Published   October,    1921. 


Press  of 

J.  J.  Little  &  Ives  Company- 
New  York,  U.  S.  A. 


HT 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

THE  work  presented  here  is  the  result  of  the  author's 
experience  in  rural  organization  in  local  communities, 
first  as  a  local  leader  and  later  as  a  rural  organization 
U  specialist  on  the  federal  and  state  cooperative  basis. 
*  As  a  part  of  that  experience  the  author  made  a  careful 
^  study  of  many  types  of  rural  work  throughout  the 
United  States,  and  has  kept  in  touch,  in  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, with  rural  development  abroad.    His  purpose  has 
been   to  secure   the  best   for  those  communities    for 
^,1  which  he  has  felt  a  special  responsibility. 

The  further  one  proceeds  in  such  study  and  demon- 
stration, the  more  truly  does  he  come  to  realize  that 
the  work  is  still  in  an  experimental  stage,  and  that  no 
~    one  may  justly  assume  to  speak  with  authority  in  this 
-    field.    In  fact,  the  evolutionary  nature  of  community 
development  makes  it  essential  that  one  should  con- 
stantly approach  the  subject  more  as  a  learner  than 
as  a  teacher — watching  carefully  to  understand  the 
meaning  of  each  new  stage  and  to  give  it  intelligent 
interpretation. 

In  this  treatise  the  attempt  is  made  to  present  the 
work  in  terms  of  action,  rather  than  of  theoretical 
organization  plans;  to  classify  such  action  in  terms  of 
definite  functions;  to  interpret  all  in  terms  of  the  local 


vi  Author's  Preface 

community  and  for  the  benefit  of  the  local  leader ;  and 
to  keep  the  entire  matter  in  such  simple  and  practical 
form  that  it  will  be  useful  to  the  local  volunteer  leader 
as  well  as  to  the  professional  paid  leader. 

For  the  purpose  of  uniformity  and  for  convenience 
to  the  student,  each  subject  is  treated  in  the  following 
manner:  1.  The  argument  for  community  organized 
action;  2.  Typical  organizations  and  projects;  3.  Ques- 
tions for  study;  4.  Research  problems  for  the  local 
community.  Under  the  second  heading,  the  organiza- 
tion instances  are  restricted  entirely  to  those  that  are 
typical,  the  account  of  which  will  encourage  the  stu- 
dent to  seek  for  still  other  instances, — and  no  attempt 
is  made  to  present  an  exhaustive  treatment  of  every- 
thing undertaken  in  the  rural  organization  field.  Under 
the  fourth  heading  it  is  the  purpose  to  develop  in  the 
student  the  habit  of  community  investigation  with  a 
view  to  remedying  defects ;  therefore  the  questions  are 
not  to  be  judged  as  covering  entirely  the  ground  of 
what  is  ordinarily  considered  a  rural  community  sur- 
vey of  a  technical  nature.  Where  the  book  is  used  as 
a  text  in  special  classes  in  Rural  Organization  and 
Rural  Leadership,  or  as  a  supplementary  text  in  Rural 
Sociology,  the  student  may  be  required  to  make  use 
of  his  own  home  community  in  working  out  the  prob- 
lems suggested,  or  a  nearby  rural  community  may  be 
chosen  as  the  field  of  investigation  for  an  entire  class. 
As  a  reading  circle  book,  the  local  leader  will  of  course 
make  his  own  place  of  residence  and  work  the  basis 
of  the  study.  A  study  circle  in  the  rural  community, 


Author's  Preface  vii 

made  up  of  the  group  of  local  leaders,  may  well  make 
the  text  the  basis  of  a  definite  program  of  community 
development. 

The  author  desires  to  express  special  appreciation 
of  the  inspiration  received  from  the  work  of  Dr.  T.  N. 
Carver  of  Harvard  University.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  activities  out  of  which  this  book  has  grown,  Dr. 
Carver  gave  personal  leadership  and  direction,  and  the 
classification  of  functions  presented  here  was  first  sug- 
gested by  his  titles  for  committees  in  his  bulletin  pre- 
pared for  the  "Bureau  of  Markets  and  Rural  Organiza- 
tion" and  entitled  "The  Organization  of  a  Rural  Com- 
munity." 

Colleagues  at  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College 
have  given  much  valuable  time  and  painstaking  effort 
in  criticism  of  the  manuscript,  and  among  these  spe- 
cial mention  should  be  made  of  Professor  J.  W.  Sear- 
son  of  the  English  Department,  Dean  F.  D.  Farrell 
of  the  Experiment  Station  and  Division  of  Agricul- 
ture, Dean  E.  L.  Holton  of  the  Department  of  Educa- 
tion, Professor  W.  E.  Grimes  of  the  Department  of 
Agricultural  Economics,  and  Professors  V.  L.  Strick- 
land and  P.  P.  Brainard  of  the  Home  Study  Service. 

Great  kindness  has  been  shown  by  Directors  of 
Bureaus  in  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture and  by  Directors  of  Departments  in  State  Insti- 
tutions, as  well  as  by  authors  of  bulletins  published  by 
such  bureaus  and  departments,  in  granting  the  free 
use  of  material  appearing  in  such  official  bulletins.  In- 
dividuals who  have  rendered  such  assistance  are :  O.  E. 


viii  Author's  Preface 

Reed,  W.  B.  Bell,  Charles  S.  Plumb,  J.  W.  Kinghorne, 
J.  C  Rundles,  Clarence  W.  Moomaw,  L.  D.  Hall,  H.  S. 
Yohe,  V.  N.  Valgren,  Robert  Withington,  C.  W.  Pugs- 
ley,  J.  Sterling  Moran,  Joel  J.  Winkjer,  C.  E.  Bassett, 
S.  W.  Doty,  C.  J.  Galpin  and  Eleanore  Weisman. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PART  I 

GENERAL    PRINCIPLES,    ORGANIZATIONS 
AND   INSTITUTIONS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER    I.    THE    RURAL    COMMUNITY 1 

Significance  of  Rural  Organization — What  is  a  Rural 
Community? — The  Functioning  Process — Community 
Functions. 

CHAPTER  II.    TYPICAL  ORGANIZATIONS  OF  NATIONAL  SCOPE      11 

Farm  Bureau — The  Grange — The  Farmers'  Educa- 
tional and  Cooperative  Union — Chamber  of  Commerce 
— Religious  Organizations — Other  Organizations — Non- 
Partisan  League. 

CHAPTER   III.    RELATIONSHIP   OF   PERMANENT   COMMUNITY 

INSTITUTIONS 21 

Institutional  Leadership:  Economic;  Educational; 
Political ;  Social ;  Cooperative — The  Community  Coun- 
cil— Community  Welfare  Club. 


PART  II 
COMMUNITY    ECONOMIC    FUNCTIONS 

CHAPTER  I.    FARM  PRODUCTION 33 

Community  Nature  of  Farm  Production — Com- 
munity Action  in  Corrective  Measures — Community 
Action  in  Constructive  Measures — Typical  Organiza- 
tions and  Projects. 

CHAPTER  II.    MARKETING 57 

Need  of  Organization — Community  Action  Desirable 
— Close  Relation  with  Organized  Action  in  Produc- 
tion— Organizing  in  Terms  of  Major  Products — Typical 
Organizations  and  Projects. 


x  Table  of  Contents 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  III.    SECURING  SUPPLIES 84 

Community  Responsibility — Place  of  Cooperative  Or- 
ganization— Convenient  Combination  of  Cooperative 
Marketing  and  Buying — New  Factors  Involved  in  Co- 
operative Store  Project — Town  and  Country  Coopera- 
tion— Typical  Organizations  and  Projects. 

CHAPTER  IV.    FINANCE        ~.     ...     101 

Individual  Enterprise  Inadequate — Fundamental  Se- 
curities in  Agricultural  Communities — Government 
Backing  for  Community  Securities — "Community  Spirit" 
Expressed  in  Financial  Terms — Credit  in  Terms  of 
Community  Service — Typical  Organizations  and  Projects. 

CHAPTER  V.    COMMUNICATION  AND  TRANSPORTATION       .     .     124 

Modern  Conditions  Depend  upon  Organized  Action — 
Unified  Telephone  System  Essential — Spirit  of  Mutual- 
ity Maintained — Service  of  Free  Delivery  to  Rural 
Community — Community  Interest  in  Roads — Typical 
Organizations  and  Projects. 


PART  III 

COMMUNITY   SOCIAL  FUNCTIONS 
INTRODUCTION 141 

CHAPTER   I.    EDUCATION 143 

Growth  from  Individual  to  Community  Responsibility 
— Developing  a  "School  Community" — A  Complete 
"Community  School" — Mutual  Service  of  School  and 
Community — Community  School  Preserves  Solidarity — 
Organized  Education  for  Adults — Typical  Organiza- 
tions and  Projects. 

CHAPTER  II.    SANITATION  AND  HEALTH 172 

Need  Develops  with  Group  Living — Urban  Com- 
munities Point  the  Way — "Rural  Diseases"  Persistent 
— Town  Center  has  Major  Responsibility — Small  Cities 
Improving — Many  Small  Villages  Keep  Clean — The 
Rural  Health  Nurse — Typical  Organizations  and 
Projects. 

CHAPTER   III.    RECREATION       193 

The  Community  Needs  Play — Grows  out  of  Right 
Relationship  in  Community  Essentials — Pleasurable 
Outlet  for  All  Group  Action — Education  and  Recreation 
Closely  Related — Typical  Organizations  and  Projects. 


Table  of  Contents  xi 


CHAPTER   IV.    BEAUTIFICATION 214 

Urban  and  Rural  Accomplishment — Mutual  Responsi- 
bility— Community  Beautifying  Campaign — Typical  Or- 
ganizations and  Projects. 

CHAPTER  V.    HOME-MAKING 227 

The  Community  Feature — Parallel  with  All  Other 
Functions — Men  and  Women  Alike  Interested — Home 
Conveniences,  a  Community  Asset — Typical  Organiza- 
tions and  Projects. 


PART  I 

GENERAL    PRINCIPLES,    ORGANIZA- 
TIONS, AND  INSTITUTIONS 


RURAL   ORGANIZATION 

CHAPTER  I 

THE   RURAL   COMMUNITY 

Significance  of  Rural  Organization 

IN  this  discussion  of  "Rural  Organization,"  the 
rural  community  will  be  considered  as  an  economic  and 
social  unit.  It  is  proposed  to  discover  and  classify 
functions  of  such  a  unit,  and  to  consider  and  develop 
methods  by  which  typical  rural  communities  may  per- 
form those  functions.  A  parallelism  may  justly  be 
drawn  from  the  human  body  as  an  organic  unit.  A 
body  has  a  certain  number  of  known  functions.  In  a 
condition  of  health  it  will  properly  perform  these  func- 
tions. A  condition  of  ill-health  is  found  to  be  due  to 
the  fact  that  some  function  is  for  the  time  being 
arrested;  the  normal  process  is  not  taking  place.  The 
failure  of  a  boy  in  school  may  be  found,  upon  exam- 
ination, to  be  due  to  faulty  eyesight.  We  know  that 
the  boy  should  be  able  to  see  well,  but  he  is  not  per- 
forming that  function ;  hence  his  failure  in  his  studies. 
The  examining  physician  diagnoses  the  case,  the  boy 
is  sent  to  a  specialist,  the  organic  defect  is  corrected, 

z 


2  Rural  Organisation 

and  the  boy  begins  to  function  in  seeing.  So  we  recog- 
nize that  any  general  failure  of  a  person  may  be  due 
to  some  organic  trouble  in  seeing,  hearing,  breathing, 
etc.  From  this  standpoint,  if  we  should  coin  the  phrase, 
"Individual  human  physical  organization,"  we  would 
obviously  understand  it  to  refer  to  the  organic  func- 
tioning of  an  individual  human  being.  Just  so,  when 
we  speak  of  "Rural  Organization,"  we  clearly  refer 
to  the  organic  functioning  of  a  rural  social  and  eco- 
nomic unit,  i.  e.,  the  rural  community. 

Following  the  parallelism,  a  rural  community  may 
be  supposed  to  have  a  certain  number  of  functions 
which  it  should  perform.  If  the  rural  community  is 
not  in  a  condition  of  health — if  it  is  failing  to  "make 
good" — then  an  examination  by  a  "community  doc- 
tor" should  disclose  the  function  in  which  there  is 
failure,  and  the  specialist,  following  this  diagnosis, 
should  be  able  (if  the  patient  will  accept  treatment) 
to  remedy  the  defect  and  help  the  community  to  a 
condition  of  normal  expression. 

We  are  confronted  with  three  questions:  1.  What 
is  a  rural  community?  2.  By  wliat  process  does  it  func- 
tion? 3.  What  are  the  functions  of  a  normal  rural 
community  ? 

What  is  a  Rural  Community? 

A  Rural  Community  may  be  defined  as  a  population 
group  in  an  agricultural  area  of  such  size  and  unity 
as  to  permit  its  citizens  to  readily  cooperate  in  group 


The  Rural  Community  3 

activities.  We  might  speak  of  a  city  as  comprising 
mainly  its  ground  space  and  its  buildings,  because  it 
lias  certain  definite  limits  as  to  area.  However,  even 
in  this  case,  we  know  that  a  city  does  not  in  reality 
consist  at  all  of  the  ground  area  or  buildings  which  it 
comprises,  but  of  its  people  and  their  related  activities. 
Since  a  rural  community  has  no  definite  area  which  can 
be  accurately  and  permanently  charted,  in  a  very  spe- 
cial sense  we  use  the  term  to  designate  a  group  of  peo- 
ple mutually  organized  into  the  institutions  of  society 
— business,  educational,  religious,  social.  Such  mutual 
organization  is  possible  only  where  people  live  con- 
tiguous to  each  other,  therefore  a  rural  community 
will  occupy  a  continuous  agricultural  area.*  It  is  not 
to  be  concluded  from  this  statement  that  the  citizens 
of  the  Rural  Community  are  all  directly  engaged  in 
farming.  The  proper  conduct  of  the  business  affairs 
of  an  agricultural  area  depends  quite  largely  upon  the 
maintenance  of  an  efficient  business  center.  The  small 
city  or  village  which  exists  for  the  primary  purpose 
of  buying  and  selling  for  farm  people  is  an  essential 
factor  of  the  Rural  Community,  and  its  inhabitants  are 
properly  considered  as  part  of  this  population  group. 
To  be  sure,  there  still  remains  in  some  sections  a  type 
of  agricultural  grouping  which  has  a  certain  unity  of 

*  According  to  the  statistical  classifications  of  the  United 
States  Census  Bureau,  aside  from  the  open  country  all  towns 
of  2500  or  less  have  been  included  in  the  "rural  population." 
But  since  this  includes  many  mining  camps,  oil  towns,  and  small 
industrial  towns,  and  the  word  "rural"  has  an  inseparable  agri- 
cultural connection,  we  will  use  it  only  as  it  applies  to  an  agri- 
cultural region  or  population. 


4  Rural  Organisation 

interests  without  comprising  a  small  city  or  town  as 
the  business  center.  Perhaps  in  most  cases  this  might 
be  termed  a  "farm  neighborhood"  rather  than  a  rural 
community — just  because  it  lacks  a  business  center.  At 
any  rate,  the  modern  tendency  in  the  United  States 
seems  to  be  to  enlarge  the  conception  of  a  community, 
and  to  center  activities  in  the  small  city  or  town.  Again, 
where  there  is  no  nearby  small  city  or  town,  the  ten- 
dency seems  to  be  to  so  enlarge  the  "farm  neighbor- 
hood" that  the  people  eventually  build  their  own  busi- 
ness center.  Therefore  we  seem  justified  in  consider- 
ing the  normal  modern  rural  community  in  America 
to  comprise  an  agricultural  area  with  a  small  city  or 
town  center — the  center  being  used  primarily  as  a 
"service  station"  for  farm  people. 

Size  and  unity  of  the  agricultural  area  are  consid- 
ered together  as  determining  factors,  because  each  is 
definitely  related  to  the  other.  The  size  must  not  be 
limited  to  such  an  extent  that  the  area  does  not  take 
within  its  scope  approximately  all  interests  that  may 
be  common  to  the  population  group;  else  the  limited 
size  would  detract  from  the  unity.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  size  must  not  be  so  greatly  extended  as  to  bring 
within  the  area  elements  that  are  so  entirely  diverse 
to  the  common  interest  that  constant  strife  will  result, 
again  destroying  the  unity.  Physical  barriers,  such  as 
rivers,  hills,  etc.,  may  predetermine  the  form  and  size 
of  the  area  within  which  interests  can  well  be  united. 
The  very  word  "community"  is  made  up  of  the  prefix 


The  Rural  Community  5 

"con,"  meaning  "with"  or  "together,"  and  the  word 
"unity."  The  purpose  of  the  "community"  is  that  there 
shall  be  "unity  together,"  and  this  inherent  meaning 
of  the  word  must  be  maintained  in  considering  the 
proper  area  of  a  rural  community.  It  is  this  relation- 
ship between  size  and  unity  which  will  determine 
whether  or  not  the  people  can  "cooperate  in  group 
activities."  For  "cooperation  in  group  activities"  is 
the  objective  of  community  life. 

The  Functioning  Process 

The  functioning  process  of  a  rural  community  is 
the  same  as  that  of  any  form  of  animate  life — from 
within,  out.  •  Every  living  unit  has  its  power  cen- 
ter-— and  this  is  as  true  of  a  social  unit  as  of  an  indi- 
vidual unit.  This  is  the  secret  of  the  "social  center 
movement."  The  community  center  is  not  a  place — it 
is  a  spirit,  an  idea;  it  is  not  a  building — it  is  a  com- 
posite personality  formed  by  a  central  group  of  local 
leaders.  A  building  at  the  center  of  the  community 
geographically  will  not  insure  a  "community  center," 
and  no  agent  from  the  outside  can  make  it  one,  no 
matter  how  well  he  may  succeed  in  organizing  some- 
thing while  the  enthusiasm  is  on.  There  must  be  a 
group  of  citizens  who  have  become  empowered  with 
a  community  spirit,  and  who  propose  to  work  zealously 
to  make  that  spirit  function  for  the  welfare  of  the 
community.  This  group  may  become  the  power  center 
in  any  one  of  many  ways.  They  may  assume  the  posi- 


6  Rural  Organisation 

tion,  and  "start  something"  in  the  nature  of  community 
interest;  or  they  may  be  recognized  by  various  organi- 
zations as  official  representatives  of  a  common  com- 
munity council;  or  they  may  become  the  committee  of 
some  already  existing  organization  in  which  the  com- 
munity is  entirely  unified;  or  they  may  become  the 
executive  committee  of  a  new  organization,  such  as 
a  "community  club,"  to  perform  the  distinctively  com- 
munity functions. 

The  best  organization  method  by  which  to  get  the 
power  of  community  spirit  into  functioning  action  will, 
of  course,  be  determined  by  the  local  situation.  The 
functions  themselves,  however,  are  to  be  performed  by 
the  community;  therefore  the  power  and  vision  of  the 
central  group  must  be  communicated  to  the  entire  com- 
munity. This  will  mean  community  meetings  for  the 
discussion  of  functions  to  be  performed  for  a  whole- 
some community  life.  This  is  the  purpose  of  the  "com- 
munity forum"  or  of  the  "social  center  meeting." 

It  is  an  error  to  assume  that  such  meetings,  whether 
of  a  social  or  educational  nature,  are  in  themselves  ade- 
quate objectives.  They  are  for  a  definite,  concrete  pur- 
pose— namely,  to  secure  community  action.  A  mere 
"get-together-fest"  soon  loses  interest  if  there  is  not 
some  definite  thing  to  be  accomplished.  At  such  meet- 
ings the  citizens  get  acquainted  with  each  other  in 
order  that  they  may  agreeably  discuss  the  functions 
of  the  community  and  may  follow  such  discussion  with 
definite  organized  action. 


The  Rural  Community  7 

Community  Functions 

The  Functions  of  a  rural  community  may  be  con- 
veniently divided  into  the  two  general  classes:  eco- 
nomic and  social.  Of  course  it  is  understood  that  no 
community  functions  are  altogether  economic  and  none 
are  altogether  social.  The  two  classes  are  closely  inter- 
related. Yet  there  are  certain  functions  which  have  to 
do  primarily  with  making  and  conserving  wealth,  and 
other  functions  which  have  to  do  primarily  with  the 
conservation  of  social  resources.  Usually,  the  two  sets 
of  functions  are  so  inter-related  that  neither  can  be 
properly  performed  without  the  parallel  performance 
of  the  other.  For  example,  production  may  be  con- 
sidered as  an  economic  function,  and  education  as  a 
social  function.  Yet  one  would  despair  of  bringing 
about  a  higher  type  of  production  without  the  educa- 
tional process,  while  at  the  same  time  one  necessity 
in  the  process  of  getting  better  schools  for  a  com- 
munity is  that  there  shall  be  a  greater  production  of 
wealth  so  that  the  people  may  be  able  to  pay  for  bet- 
ter schools. 

The  following  has  been  found  a  convenient  classifica- 
tion of  the  economic  functions  of  a  rural  community : 
1.  Farm  Production;  2.  Marketing;  3.  Securing  Sup- 
plies; 4.  Finance;  5.  Communication  and  Transpor- 
tation. These  are  all  functions  which  the  rural  com- 
munity must  perform  properly  to  maintain  a  health- 
ful and  normal  economic  life.  The  economic  welfare 


8  Rural  Organisation 

of  a  community  depends  basically  upon  the  production 
of  new  wealth.  The  only  new  wealth  possible  for 
the  people  in  the  city  center  of  an  agricultural  com- 
munity, as  well  as  for  the  farmers  themselves,  is 
the  wealth  produced  on  the  farms.  But  such  produc- 
tion would  be  of  no  use,  and  would  not  continue,  with- 
out proper  provision  for  marketing.  Nor  can  produc- 
tion and  marketing  continue  without  provision  for  se- 
curing the  supplies  which  make  it  possible  for  the  peo- 
ple to  continue  in  the  business  of  production  and  mar- 
keting. Credit  and  bookkeeping  and  money  are  all  in- 
volved in  these  processes,  necessitating  attention  to 
community  finance  and  accounting.  And,  even  though 
the  community  were  functioning  properly  in  all  of 
these  ways,  there  would  still  be  economic  failure  if 
there  were  no  attention  given  to  the  means  of  com- 
munication and  transportation,  such  as  telephones,  mail 
delivery,  roads,  and  railway  facilities.  With  all  these 
functions  in  proper  cooperative  action,  economic  pros- 
perity is  to  be  expected.  But  no  individual  can  bring 
this  desirable  condition  about.  That  is  a  task  for  the 
community.  Therefore  these  are  essentially  community 
economic  functions. 

The  rural  community  that  expects  to  live  will  use 
the  wealth  produced  by  the  exercise  of  economic  func- 
tions to  help  it  to  function  socially — to  make  the  com- 
munity a  better  place  in  which  people  may  live  together. 
The  community  social  functions  have  been  conveniently 
classified  as  follows:  1.  Education;  2.  Sanitation;  3. 
Recreation;  4.  Beautification ;  5.  Home-making. 


10  Rural  Organisation 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  "rural  organization"? 

2.  Give  a  definition  of  a  rural  community. 

3.  Explain    the    significance    of    "size"    and    "unity"    in    the 

definition. 

4.  What  do  you  consider  to  be  the  distinction  between  a  "com- 

munity" and  a  "neighborhood"? 

5.  By  what  process  does  a  rural  community  function? 

6.  What  is  a  "community  center"? 

7.  What  is  the  significance  of  the  "public  forum"? 

8.  What  is  the  objective  of  the  "public  forum"  or  "community 

meeting"  ? 

9.  Into  what  two  general  classes  may  rural  community  func- 

tions be  conveniently  divided?    What  further  classification 
may  be  made  of  each  of  these? 

RESEARCH  PROBLEMS 

1.  What  is  the  area  of  your  community?       (Draw    a    map.) 

Should  the  area  be  enlarged?     If  so,  by  what  process? 
What  are  the  limiting  factors  in  each  direction? 

2.  What  other  local  business   interests   are   there   aside   from 

farming? 

3.  Should  other  interests  than  those  now  present  be  encouraged, 

and  to  what  extent? 

4.  Has  this  community  a  typical  town  center? 

5.  Are  the  various  local  factors  united?     How  could  the  unity 

of  action  be  improved? 

6.  Is  there  personal  organization  leadership?     If  not,  how  best 

developed?    If  so,  how  improved? 

7.  What  community  meetings  are  held,  and  with  what  results? 

8.  Of  the  ten  functions  enumerated,  in  what  ones  is  this  com- 

munity weak?     In  what    ones  could  it  be  most  readily 
•trengthened  ? 


CHAPTER  II 

TYPICAL  ORGANIZATIONS  OF   NATIONAL  SCOPE  * 

Farm  Bureau 

THE  Farm  Bureau  is  the  agricultural  organization 
which  cooperates,  through  the  States  Relations  Serv- 
ice, directly  with  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  It  had  its  beginning  in  demonstration 
work  in  agriculture,  conducted  by  the  Government  by 
means  of  trained  agricultural  agents.  Through  the 
"Smith-Lever  Act"  Congress  recognized  the  efficiency 
of  demonstration  work  in  agriculture  and  home  eco- 
nomics, and  appropriated  funds  to  be  used  for  the 
employment  of  "agents"  to  conduct  such  demonstra- 
tion work.  The  money  was  made  available  to  those 
states  which  would  duplicate  the  amounts  received 
from  the  Government.  The  larger  number  of  the  states 
set  up  new  organizations  to  function  in  the  wise  con- 
duct of  this  program,  on  the  county  unit  basis.  These 
organizations  are  the  Farm  Bureaus. 

The  County  Farm  Bureau  is  an  organization  of  a 

*  A  number  of  organizations  have  undertaken,  with  varying 
degrees  of  success,  to  become  nation-wide  in  their  operations 
in  the  interests  of  agriculture.  We  shall  consider  here  only  those 
which,  while  having  a  form  of  national  organization,  work 
through  an  organized  unit  in  the  local  rural  community. 

II 


12  Rural  Organisation 

certain  percentage  of  the  farmers  of  a  county,  who 
meet  requirements  specified  by  state  law,  and  by  prop- 
er process  usually  secure  federal,  state  and  county 
aid  in  conducting  their  affairs  through  a  county  agent. 
The  administrative  agent  in  the  state  is  ordinarily  the 
director  of  extension  in  the  state  agricultural  college, 
working  cooperatively  with  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, through  the  States  Relations  Service. 

The  County  Farm  Bureau  may  employ  a  man  as 
county  agent,  and  a  woman  as  home  demonstration 
agent,  with  necessary  assistants.  It  is  the  primary  busi- 
ness of  the  county  agent  to  provide  the  farmers  of  his 
county  with  agricultural  education  by  means  of  demon- 
strations. Since  demonstrations  must  be  conducted  in 
definite  locations,  and  since  the  same  problems  are  to 
be  dealt  with  in  the  same  communities,  the  organiza- 
tion in  recent  years  has  shown  a  tendency  to  operate 
on  the  community  basis.  In  many  states  "Community 
Committees"  of  the  farm  bureaus  have  been  developed, 
each  such  committee  having  its  definite  program  for 
the  development  of  the  agriculture  of  the  local  com- 
munity. 

Since  to  develop  the  agriculture  of  a  community 
means  more  than  merely  to  develop  its  crops  and  live 
stock,  and  extends  to  the  development  of  all  the  eco- 
nomic and  social  life  of  agricultural  people,  it  is  essen- 
tial that  as  soon  as  possible  every  county  in  the  United 
States  should  have  a  county  agent.  Federal  and  state 
funds  are  not  always  immediately  available  to  accom- 
modate the  counties  when  they  are  ready  to  organize 


Typical  Organizations  of  National  Scope      13 

this  program,  but  such  funds  will  be  available  rapidly, 
and  such  one  hundred  per  cent  organization  should  be 
considered  as  the  goal  to  be  attained. 

In  a  farm  bureau  county,  citizens  should  apply  to 
the  county  agent  to  secure  information  along  any  of 
the  lines  of  agricultural  community  activities.  Where 
there  is  no  county  agent,  application  for  information 
and  assistance  in  agricultural  community  work  should 
be  addressed  to  the  Director  of  Extension  at  the  State 
Agricultural  College, 

In  a  number  of  states,  the  county  farm  bureaus  have 
formed  "State  Farm  Bureau  Federations,"  and  these 
in  turn  have  united  in  the  American  Farm  Bureau 
Federation. 

The  Grange 

The  Grange  is  an  organization  among  farmers,  for 
educational  and  social  development.  An  early  state- 
ment declares  the  purpose  of  the  Grange  to  be:  "To 
develop  a  better  and  higher  manhood  and  womanhood 
among  ourselves.  To  enhance  the  comforts  and  attrac- 
tions of  our  homes,  and  strengthen  our  attachments  to 
our  pursuits.  To  foster  mutual  understanding  and  co- 
operation." 

An  official  name  of  the  Grange  is  "The  Patrons  of 
Husbandry."  It  is  primarily  a  community  organiz- 
ation, since  the  unit  of  organization  is  the  local  or 
subordinate  grange.  The  subordinate  granges  of  a 
given  county  or  district  often  organize  themselves  into 


14  Rural  Organisation 

a  larger  unit  of  the  order.  The  National  Grange  is 
the  authoritative  head  of  the  organization.  The  Grange 
operates  locally  with  a  "master"  at  the  head,  assisted 
by  twelve  elected  officers.  The  most  important  office, 
aside  from  that  of  the  master,  is  the  "lecturer."  In 
actual  operation,  the  master  is  responsible  for  the  finan- 
cial and  business  activities,  and  the  lecturer  is  respon- 
sible for  the  social  activities.  The  latter  include  the 
arranging  and  conducting  of  programs,  the  bringing 
in  of  speakers,  the  planning  of  new  programs  of 
growth — and,  in  fact,  the  general  activities  that  keep 
the  organization  developing. 

For  information  concerning  the  activities  of  a  local 
Grange  in  community  work,  interested  parties  should 
address  the  Master  of  the  State  Grange.  The  post-office 
address  can  be  secured  from  any  Grange  member. 


The  Farmers'  Educational  and  Cooperative  Union 

The  Farmers'  Educational  and  Cooperative  Union 
is  an  organization  of  farmers  primarily  for  the  pur- 
pose of  advancing  trade  interests  through  economic 
cooperative  organization.  The  organization  impulse  is 
usually  militant,  and  in  the  name  of  securing  the  rights 
of  the  farmers  as  a  class.  Much  stress  is  laid  upon  the 
alleged  waste  of  the  competitive  system,  and  the  at- 
tempt to  eliminate  the  middleman.  In  grain-producing 
sections  the  organization  has  been  particularly  success- 
ful in  the  conduct  of  cooperative  elevators  and  mills. 


Typical  Organizations  of  National  Scope      15 

In  many  instances  success  has  also  been  claimed  for 
cooperative  stores. 

This  organization  is  especially  significant  from  a 
community  standpoint  because  the  unit  of  activity  is 
the  local  chapter-  These  local  chapters  have  the  officers 
common  to  local  organizations,  and  conduct  regular 
business,  social  and  educational  meetings.  Many  of 
the  meetings  are  "open"  to  the  public,  so  that  the 
Farmers'  Union,  like  the  Grange,  can  be  used  freely 
as  a  functioning  community  organization,  where  it  has 
already  unified  practically  the  entire  citizenship  in  its 
membership.  Sometimes  where  the  town  center  is  an 
influential  part  of  the  community,  and  it  has  seemed 
necessary  to  the  leaders  of  the  Union  to  be  especially 
militant  for  the  rights  of  the  farmers  as  a  special  class, 
such  an  attitude  has  placed  limitations  upon  the  possi- 
bility of  larger  community  service. 

Those  who  are  interested  in  securing  information 
about  the  possibilities  of  the  local  chapter  of  the  Farm- 
ers' Union  in  community  activities  should  address  in- 
quiries to  the  office  of  the  State  President  of  the  Farm- 
ers' Union.  The  address  can  be  secured  through  the 
County  Agent  or  the  State  Agricultural  College. 

Chamber  of  Commerce 

The  Chamber  of  Commerce,  or  a  like  business  or- 
ganization, in  certain  localities  has  made  successful  at- 
tempts to  become  agricultural-community-wide.  Where 


16  Rural  Organisation 

such  a  plan  is  adopted,  the  organization  ceases  definite 
connection  with  retail  trade  as  such,  and  undertakes  to 
unite  all  elements  in  the  community  for  common  wel- 
fare. In  some  instances  the  suggestion  has  been  made 
to  adopt  the  name  of  "The  Chamber  of  Agriculture 
and  Commerce,"  recognizing  a  duty  to  serve  all  busi- 
ness interests.  For  further  information  concerning  the 
community  work  of  this  organization,  inquiries  should 
be  addressed  to  the  State  Chamber  of  Commerce,  the 
address  being  secured  from  any  local  banker  or  other 
business  man. 

Religious  Organisations 

The  International  Committee  of  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  has  maintained  for  a  number  of 
years  a  "County  Work  Department."  In  the  United 
States  this  work  functions  through  the  various  State 
headquarters,  directed  in  each  case  by  a  State  Secretary 
of  County  Work.  A  county  committee  is  organized  in 
each  county  adopting  the  county  program,  and  this 
committee  employs  a  county  secretary.  The  work  of 
the  secretary  is  primarily  with  men  and  boys.  It  is 
based  upon  religious  activities,  including  Bible  study, 
and  comprises  also  recreational  and  general  social  activ- 
ities. The  national  headquarters  is  located  at  347  Mad- 
ison Avenue,  New  York  City. 

The  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  main- 
tains nationally  a  "Town  and  Country  Department." 
Their  plan  also  provides  for  a  county  secretary,  with 


Typical  Organizations  of  National  Scope      17 

leadership  of  girls  and  women  in  religious  and  social 
activities.  They  have  national  offices  at  600  Lexington 
Avenue,  New  York  City. 

The  Catholic  National  Welfare  Council  is  stressing 
rural  community  work,  and  has  secretaries  in  training 
to  develop  extension  activities  of  a  religious  social  na- 
ture in  connection  with  the  regular  work  of  Catholic 
parishes.  The  central  office  is  at  1312  Massachusetts 
Avenue,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Other  Organizations 

Other  organizations  with  special  economic  programs 
for  farmers  are:  "The  American  Society  of  Equity," 
strong  in  Wisconsin,  Minnesota  and  the  two  Dakotas ; 
"The  Gleaners,"  starting  in  Michigan,  among  bean 
raisers  and  fruit  growers;  and  "The  Equity  Union," 
with  headquarters  in  Illinois,  and  membership  also  in 
Kansas  and  Nebraska. 


Nonr-Partisan  League 

The  Non-Partisan  League  had  its  origin  in  North 
Dakota,  as  a  corrective  of  severe  abuses  which  the 
farmers  proved  had  grown  up  about  the  entire  market- 
ing situation.  The  leaders  claimed  that  redress  was 
impossible,  because  the  state  government  was  controlled 
by  those  corporate  interests  which  were  guilty  of  the 
abuses.  They  organized  to  influence  political  action, 


18  Rural  Organization 

in  order  to  wrest  control  of  the  state  government  from 
the  interests  and  secure  it  for  the  farmers  of  the  state. 
Their  attempt  in  North  Dakota  was  successful,  and 
they  began  to  conduct  a  state  in  the  interests  of  the 
producers. 

The  leaders  of  the  Non-Partisan  League  advocate 
a  form  of  state  socialism.  In  an  agricultural  state,  they 
argue  that,  since  the  means  of  handling  the  product 
are  essential  to  the  prosperity  of  the  producer,  it  is 
the  function  of  the  state  to  own  and  operate  these 
means,  such  as  elevators,  mills,  packing-houses,  etc. 
Therefore  they  undertake  to  get  control  of  state  gov- 
ernment to  bring  about  this  end. 

Since  the  Non-Partisan  League  proposes  to  change 
governmental  forms,  state  by  state,  to  the  cooperative 
commonwealth  plan,  it  has  been  charged  with  being 
un-American.  Of  course  the  institution  of  a  different 
form  of  government  naturally  requires  the  overthrow 
of  the  present  form,  and  in  that  sense  is  revolutionary. 
Also,  since  the  promoters  of  such  a  change  in  govern- 
ment must  expose  the  supposed  ills  of  the  present  form, 
they  have  naturally  attracted  to  their  standard  a  great 
many  people  who  are  not  favorable  to  the  government 
of  the  United  States  or  of  the  state  in  which  they  live. 

This  organization  works  through  local  communities 
for  developing  state  machinery,  but  has  no  definite  pro- 
gram for  local  development.  The  membership  fees  of 
individuals  go  entirely  into  a  fund  for  nation-wide 
propaganda  for  their  form  of  state  government.  Their 
leaders,  however,  claim  their  state  governmental  pro- 


Typical  Organizations  of  National  Scope      19 

gram  to  be  in  the  interests  of  farmers,  and  seek  their 
membership  from  among  farmers.  Further  informa- 
tion can  be  secured  by  addressing  the  headquarters  at 
Fargo,  North  Dakota. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  County  Farm  Bureau?    By  what  funds  is  it  sup- 

ported? 

2.  From  what  state  center  is  the  work  of  the  Farm  Bureau 

administered  ? 

3.  What  paid   workers   render  service   for   the   County  Farm 

Bureau  ? 

4.  What    is    a    "community    committee"    of    a    County    Farm 

Bureau? 

5.  What   is    the    State    Farm    Bureau?     The    National    Farm 

Bureau  ? 

6.  What  is  the  declared  purpose  of  the  Grange? 

7.  What  is  the  unit  of  organization  in  the  Grange?     Through 

what  officers  does  this  unit  function? 

8.  What  seems   to   have  been  the   dominating  motive  of   the 

Farmers'  Educational  and  Cooperative  Union?  Under 
what  conditions  can  it  best  function  as  a  complete  com- 
munity organization? 

9.  What  is  the  possibility  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  serving 

country  business  men  as  well  as  city  business  men? 
10.   What,   briefly   stated,   is   the  program  of  the   Non-partisan 
League?    What  bearing  has  it  upon  the  local  rural  com- 
munity? 

RESEARCH  PROBLEMS 

1.  How  may  the  County  Farm  Bureau  operate  more  efficiently 

in  this  community?  Could  it  do  more  to  develop  farm 
business?  Could  it  do  more  to  develop  home  life? 

2.  What  other  agricultural  organizations  of  national  scope  exist 

locally?     How  might  their  local  work  be  improved? 


20  Rural  Organization 

3.  How  much  money  is  expended  by  local  people  for  agricul- 

tural organization?     Do  the  returns  justify  the  expendi- 
ture? 

4.  Is  there  need  of  agricultural  organizations  that  have  not  yet 

been  developed  in  this  community? 

5.  What  is  the  relationship  and  feeling,  locally,  between  agri- 

cultural organizations  and  other  organizations?    How  may 
they  be  brought  to  a  better  understanding  of  each  other? 


CHAPTER  III 

RELATIONSHIP    OF    PERMANENT    COMMUNITY 
INSTITUTIONS 

Institutional  Leadership 

USUALLY  the  local  leader  who  gives  his  full  time 
to  the  business  of  developing  a  more  wholesome  and 
satisfactory  community  life  is  professionally  employed 
by_gjie_Qijhe  permanent  community  institutions,  repre- 

senting  business,  education,  religjo.ru- OJL  politics He 

will  want  to  know  just  how  his  institution  is  to  aid 
the  community  to  properly  perform  its  functions. 

There  is  a  tendency  just  now  toward  a  certain 
amount  of  strife  among  the  leaders  of  these  institu- 
tions, to  get  control  of  rural  activities.  One  organiza- 
tion enthusiast  says  that  the  Chamber  of  Commerce 
or  the  Farm  Bureau  (or  the  two  cooperating)  would 
prove  the  proper  institution  for  all  community  action. 
Another  is  so  persistent  for  "the  school  as  a  com- 
munity center"  that  he  can  scarcely  see  the  use  of 
other  institutions  at  all.  Another  has  much  to  say 
about  the  "rural  church  as  a  center,"  bringing  it  into 
competition  at  once  with  the  business  and  educational 
organizations. 

It  should  be  evident  to  the  impartial  student  that 

21 


22  Rural  Organisation 

these  institutions  are  functioning  members  of  the  com- 
munity, and  that  each  has  responsibility  for  special 
functions. 

The  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  the  Farm  Bureau 
must  be  considered  together  as  the  business  institu- 
tion of  the  community,  because  primarily  they  should 
harmonize  to  develop  the  business  of  economic  inter- 
ests. When  their  activities  are  properly  understood, 
there  is  no  competition  between  them,  but  the  closest 
working  relationship.  Not  infrequently  the  manager 
of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  the  county  agent  of 
the  Farm  Bureau  occupy  the  same  office,  and  sometimes 
members  of  the  board  of  directors  of  one  are  members 
of  the  executive  committee  of  the  other.  In  their  dual 
capacity  they  will  be  responsible  for  the  "Economic 
Functions"  of  the  community. 

The  school^  exists  for  the_j3>m-pose  of  educating  the 
childrenand  youth,  and  will  properly  give  its  attention 
chiefly  to  that  function.  Beyond  this,  it  has  the  respon- 
sibility of  every  activity  which  has  to  do  with  adult 
education  for  purposes  of  individual  development  and 
of  community  growth. 

The  diurch^ Jias__a  twofold  responsibility.  First,  it 
is  the  great  inspiratLonaL-pO-wer  of  the-  community. 
While  there  might  be  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
what  religion  really  £y,  and  as  to  what  kind  of  religion 
might  best  inspire  to  wholesome  community  action,  yet 
there  could  be  no  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  central 
place  of  this  great  power  of  life.  It  is  the  heart  and 


Permanent  Community  Institutions  23 

soul  of  the  community,  and  therefore  cannot  be  charted 
as  a  mere  function  of  community  life.  To  be  sure,  one 
occasionally  finds  a  benighted  religious  leader  who  does 
not  turn  the  power  of  religion  on  the  community  at 
all,  but  makes  it  apply  only  to  a  life  which  he  sees  as 
entirely  separate  from  the  practical  local  activities  of 
every  day;  but  he  is  coming  very  rapidly  to  be  a  rare 
exception.  The  fact  remains,  at  any  rate,  that  wher- 
ever a  permanently  prosperous  and  wholesome  com- 
munity life  has  been  developed,  there  has  been  a  sin- 
cere and  zealous  religious  power  back  of,  or  within,  it. 
The  other  responsibility  of  the  church  is  that  of  re- 
ligious and  moral  education.  Since  this  is  part  of  the 
educational  function,  the  church  and  the  school  will 
share  the  responsibility;  but  under  the  conditions  in 
our  democracy  there  are  definite  and  necessary  limita- 
tions placed  upon  the  school  in  regard  to  purely  re- 
ligious education,  so  that  the  responsibility  for  this  falls 
upon  the  church,  in  addition  to  the  home. 

Within  these  limits  there  is  little  room  for  discus- 
sion as  to  the  scope  of  the  activities  of  these  institu- 
tions. That  is,  all  will  agree  that  business  should  at- 
tend to  the  economic  interests,  that  the  school  should 
attend  to  the  secular  educational  interests,  that  the 
church  should  attend  to  the  religious-inspirational  and 
the  religious-educational  interests,  and  that  the  school 
and  the  church  should  share  with  each  other  and  with 
the  home  the  responsibility  for  moral  education.  The 
only  question  which  arises  is  how  far  any  one  of  these 


24  Rural  Organisation 

may  go  into  the  field  of  the  other,  and  which  one  should 
undertake  activities  which  seem  not  directly  to  belong 
to  any  of  them. 

Without  considering  the  overweening  tendency  of 
any  given  leader  to  occupy  the  entire  field,  a  part  of 
this  dilemma  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  other 
great  institution  of  society  does  not  yet  function  fully 
in  terms  of  local  community  action;  that  is,  in  many 
sections  the  rural  community  is  not  organized  as  a 
governmental  unit,  so  that  the  government  cannot  func- 
tion locally.  In  the  city,  municipal  government  has  the 
responsibility  for  public  sanitation  and  health,  beauti- 
fication  of  publicly-owned  property,  public  recreation, 
as  well  as  transportation  in  so  far  as  it  applies  to 
streets,  alleys  and  walks.  To  be  sure,  in  the  country 
the  county  government  has  some  slight  control  over 
sanitation  and  health,  and  together  with  the  township 
government  in  some  sections  has  certain  responsibili- 
ties for  the  public  highways ;  but  usually  with  no  local 
unit  which  can  express  the  sentiments  and  meet  the 
demands  of  an  entire  community.  This  may  be  the 
next  step  to  be  taken  in  organizing  the  rural  com- 
munity. There  is  no  good  reason  why  the  small  city 
center  should  not  have  incorporated  with  it  the  entire 
agricultural  area  for  which  it  serves  now  as  a  school 
center  and  business  center.  This  would  give  us  a  local 
governmental  unit  to  coincide  with  the  community  as  a 
unit.  In  states  which  have  developed  school  consolida- 
tion or  the  rural  high  school  in  some  adequate  form, 
there  may  well  be  commended  the  feasibility  of  making 


Permanent  Community  Institutions  25 

such  area  the  real  governmental  unit,  functioning  in 
all  ways  in  which  a  municipality  functions. 

Much  difficulty  will  be  avoided  by  a  careful  analysis 
and  recognition  of  the..irgpnngibi1itipg  nf  the  various 
institutions.  There  is  no  doubt  that  under  a  developed 
form  of  institutional  life,  all  community  functions 
would  be  properly  performed  without  the_necessity  of 
a  special  "cornniumtyLinQyement''  or  any  organization 
for  so-called  social  center  purposes.  Business,  school, 
church,  government  and  home  would  all  occupy  their 
proper  spheres,  and  there  would  result  a  prosperous 
and  happy  community.  But  at  certain  times  these  insti- 
tutions do  not  function,  and  a  "movement"  or  special 
temporary  organization  becomes  necessary.  Or  it  may 
be  that  one  institution  for  some  reason  becomes  very 
strong  and  capable,  so  that  it  could  accomplish  more 
than  its  own  special  task,  while  others  have  not  yet 
arrived  at  the  place  of  sufficient  strength  to  perform 
their  own  duties.  In  such  cases  there  can  be  only  one 
fair  decision :  that  there  is  an  emergency,  and  that  any 
organization  form  or  activity  is  good  which  can  give 
emergency  treatment. 

If  the  leader  who  discovers  that  the  economic  inter- 
ests of  the  community  are  receiving  no  attention  is  a 
rural  minister  or  priest,  and  he  cannot  get  the  citizens 
to  perfect  a  business  organization,  then  it  becomes  his 
duty  to  see  to  it  that  the  church  shall  administer  the 
needed  emergency  treatment.  If  the  agricultural  agent 
or  the  manager  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  discovers 
that  adult  education  and  progress  are  not  being  pro- 


26  Rural  Organization 

vided  for,  or  that  the  means  of  recreation  and  sanita- 
tion are  inadequate,  and  he  cannot  get  the  school  or 
a  governmental  agency  to  attend  to  these  deficiencies, 
then  it  is  his  business  to  have  the  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce or  the  Farm  Bureau  supply  the  need.  If  the 
school  superintendent  discovers  that  there  is  no  moral 
education  carried  on  in  the  community,  or  that  busi- 
ness interests  are  not  being  conserved,  and  he  cannot 
get  the  church  or  business  to  attend  to  these  matters, 
then  he  must  see  to  it  that  the  community  is  served  in 
these  capacities  by  the  school.  Buteyery_such  leader 
must  recognize  that  his  institution  has  stepped  into  the 
sphere  of  another  in  so  doing,  and  must  have  it  as  his 
purpose  tcTperfect  the  otHer"needed  institution  as  soon 
as  possible^__amL  to  turn  the  work_pf  the  institution 
over  to  it  assoon  as  it  is  able  properly  to  bear  the 
burden. 

Returning  to  our  early  parallelism :  the  members  of 
the  body  have  definite  functions  to  perform.  The' eyes 
are  for  seeing  and  the  fingers  for  feeling;  but  when 
the  eyes  are  blinded  the  fingers  may,  through  the  sense 
of  touch,  render  certain  service  which  the  eyes  nor- 
mally render.  It  is  certainly  the  duty  of  the  fingers 
to  take  the  place  of  the  eyes  in  this  way  as  far  as  pos- 
sible; but  when  the  ability  to  see  returns  to  the  eyes, 
their  function  must  be  turned  back  to  them  with  all 
the  responsibilities  and  privileges  involved.  The  arm- 
less freak  in  the  sideshow  writes  calling  cards  with  his 
toes;  he  is  to  be  honored  for  making  his  living  that 
way.  But  that  does  not  argue  that  the  toes  are  for 


Permanent  Community  Institutions  27 

the  business  of  writing  calling  cards.  Just  so  the  church 
is  not  for  the  purpose  of  permanently  conducting  a 
farmers'  institute,  a  business  men's  club,  a  gymnasium, 
or  health  center,  although  in  some  sections  it  is  neces- 
sary that  it  render  temporarily  such  emergency  treat- 
ment. Neither  is  the  Farm  Bureau  to  undertake  to  at- 
tend to  all  of  the  social  needs  of  the  rural  community, 
although  this  task  may  devolve  upon  it  while  the  other 
institutions  are  lying  dormant.  Nor  is  the  school  to 
manage  the  religious  and  business  activities,  although 
in  given  instances  it  may  be  necessary  for  it  to  do 
double  duty  in  these  ways  for  a  short  time. 

In  beginning  a  community  movement,  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  organize  something  unnecessarily.  An 
over-organized  community  is  worse  than  an  unorgan- 
ized community.  Frequently  one  will  find  a  farm  bu- 
reau committee,  or  a  church,  or  a  grange,  or  a  farmers' 
union,  or  a  school,  in  which  all  the  life  of  the  com- 
munity is  for  the  time  unified.  Where  this  situation 
exists,  it  is  better  to  make  use  of  such  an  organization 
than  to  perfect  another  -  one  immediately. 

Where  many  institutions  and  organizations  exist 
side  by  side,  it  is  frequently  found  a  workable  plan  to 
forward  the  community  movement  by  the  formation 
of  a  Community  Council.  This  consists  of  delegates 
chosen,  one  from  each  local  organization,  in  order  to 
get  all  the  organized  bodies  back  of  a  unified  program 
of  development.  Sometimes,  however,  where  there  is 
an  unfortunate  condition  of  strife  locally,  this  com- 
munity council  plan  will  not  operate  effectively,  since 


28  Rural  Organisation 

either  the  organizations  will  not  elect  delegates  who  are 
intelligently  interested  in  such  a  program,  or  certain 
of  them  will  elect  delegates  who  are  instructed  to  con- 
serve their  own  organizational  or  institutional  advan- 
tage, rather  than  to  cooperate  in  a  program  for  the 
common  welfare.  It  sometimes  proves  true  that  the 
nearer  strong  forces  are  brought  together,  the  harder 
they  will  fight;  and  where  this  seems  to  be  the  case 
any  attempt  at  federated  activity  under  such  a  plan 
as  the  community  council  will  fail. 

It  may  prove  necessary  to  form  a  temporary  or- 
ganization, such  as  a  "Community  Club,"  *  for  the 
purposes  of  the  community  movement.  It  should  be 
remembered,  however,  that  such  an  organization  is  in 
the  nature  of  a  "movement,"  and  is  to  be  allowed  to 
die  a  glorious  death  just  as  soon  as  permanent  insti- 
tutions right  themselves  and  get  into  the  job  of  com- 
munity service. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Can  the  church  and  the  school  each  be  the  "social  center" 

in  the  same  community? 

2.  Can  either  the  Farm  Bureau  or  the  Chamber  of  Commerce 

serve    permanently    as    the    organization    for    community 
center  activities? 

3.  What  is  the  chief  purpose  of  a  business  institution?     Of 

an  educational  institution?     Of  a  religious  institution? 

4.  What  leader  should  first  undertake  the  community  develop- 

ment program  locally? 

*  For  constitution  and   by-laws   for  a  Community   Club,   see 
page  245. 


Permanent  Community  Institutions  29 

5.  May  social  center  activities  be  divided  among  various  institu- 

tions ? 

6.  What  is  a  "community  council,"  and  how  may  it  function 

for   institutions   and   organizations   in   local    development 
activities  ? 


RESEARCH   PROBLEMS 

1.  List  the  institutions  of  this  community. 

2.  Are   the   institutions   working   properly   at   their   respective 

tasks?     Are  other  institutions  needed? 

3.  Is  there  overlapping  in  the  activities  of  local  institutions? 

If  so,  how  may  it  be  corrected? 

4.  Is   there   need   of   a   social   organization    for   general   com- 

munity development?     If  so,  what  form  of  organization 
would  be  most  practicable,  and  how  best  perfected? 

5.  What  would  be  the  first  steps  of  such  an  organization  in' 

a  program  of  work  for  this  community? 


PART  II 
COMMUNITY  ECONOMIC  FUNCTIONS 


CHAPTER  I 

FARM    PRODUCTION 

Community  Nature  of  Farm  Production 

WE  passed  through  a  period  when  it  was  common 
to  think  of  every  sort  of  business  as  an  individual  enter- 
prise. This  was  especially  true  of  agricultural  produc- 
tion, since  the  individual  farmer  owned  the  means  of 
production,  and  frequently  he  and  his  family  performed 
all  the  labor  necessary  to  production.  But  with  the 
awakening  of  social  consciousness  ^and-th&  recognition 
of  community  needs,  we  are  coming^  to  realize  that  the 
community  mayTunction  advantageously__in^,^gricul- 
turaTproductioji_aiIwjglLasJrLmar^ting)i  or  any  -ei the 
other  enterprises  Jn  which  the  advantages  of  coopera- 
tion haye_long_bgen_  recognized. 

Community  Action  in  Corrective  Measures 

In  controlling  animal  and  crop  pests  and  diseases, 
this  lesson  has  been  learned  by  experience  and  taught 
by  demonstration.  The  hog  cholera  control  district  is 
but  a  practical  recognition  and  demonstration  of  the 
fact  that  if  pork  production  is  to  be  maintained  with- 
out serious  losses  due  to  hog  cholera,  it  will  not  be  by 

33 


34  Rural  Organisation 

isolated  individual  effort ;  but  "community  interest' ' 
must^ke^awakened  throughout jin_jentire  district — or- 
ganization^ f  this  interest  is  perfected.  and_hog  cholera 
eradicated.  The  control  of  foot  and  mouth  disease  and 
of  tuberculosis  in  cattle  is  no  longer  a  responsibility 
of  the  individual  only;  in  fact,  the  organized  com- 
munity reserves  the  right  now,  under  certain  regula- 
tions, to  destroy  the  herd  of  an  individual,  if  that  be- 
comes necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  community. 

The  survey  of  a  certain  area  of  pasture  land  shows 
a  definite  number  of  acres  of  pasturage  destroyed  each 
year  by  the  ravages  of  gophers.  From  the  results  of 
the  survey,  the  approximate  amount  of  loss  in  pro- 
duction per  year  is  determined.  At  one  time  it  would 
have  been  left  to  the  individual  initiative  of  the  farmer 
to  discover  and  correct  this  situation.  But  not  so  to- 
day, when  we  are  functioning  in  these  matters  not 
merely  as  individuals,  but  as  organized  communities. 
Now  a  district  is  mapped  out,  the  farmers  are  organ- 
ized for  a  purpose,  and  simultaneously  throughout  the 
entire  area  the  gophers  are  poisoned. 

The  extensive  operations  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  in  attacking  the  boll  weevil 
in  the  cotton  areas  is  further  significant  of  our  general 
recognition  that  production  depends  upon  community 
action.  The  story  of  that  movement  has  always,  as  its 
tragic  feature,  the  opposing  attitude  of  those  indi- 
viduals here  and  there  who  either  refuse  to  recognize 
the  duty  and  advantage  of  community  action  or  who, 
after  having  agreed  to  cooperate  for  the  common  wel- 


Farm  Production  35 

fare,  have  seen  an  opportunity  to  profit  individually 
by  undertaking,  stealthily,  an  individual  effort  regard- 
less of  the  common  good.  By  disappointing  experi- 
ence, our  agricultural  producers  have  slowly  been  learn- 
ing the  lesson  that  an  individual  alone  can  make  very 
little  headway  toward  the  eradication  of  the  Hessian 
fly,  the  chinch  bug,  the  grasshopper,  and  other  grain 
pests.  Community  organization  for  such  a  purpose  is 
coming  jto_be^  the  commonly  accepted  plan. 

Community  Action  in  Constructive  Measures 

It  is  not  only  in  the  realm  of  preventive  activities 
that  we  are  recognizing  agricultural  production  as  a 
community  function.  Through  united  effort  and  ex- 


perimentation, rt  Js_JejLrned^miraHytriRt  a  - 
variety  of  corn  will  prooluce  the  Jargest:  _acre_yiejd_in 
a  certain  part  of  the  country.  By  the  same  sort  of 
community  action,  producers  are  encouraged  to  grow 
that  variety.  The  locality  becomes  famous  for  that 
type  of  corn  production.  A  community  in  Kansas  be- 
comes interested  in  Kanred  wheat,  which  will  produce 
from  three  to  four  bushels  an  acre  more  than  will  any 
other  variety  in  Kansas.  In  a  short  time  that  entire 
region  is  producing  that  particular  variety.  Any  such 
organized  attempt  at  increasing  the  grain  product  of 
the  community,  is  an  example  of  "community  pro- 
duction." 

The  dairying  and  beef  cattle  industries  in  many  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States  are  coming  within  the  realm 


36  Rural  Organisation 

of  community  action.  An  individual  small  fanner  can- 
not, without  great  difficulty  and  expense,  indefinitely 
keep  up  his  herd  to  a  high  type  of  production.  A  bull 
club,  in  which  a  group  of  farmers  cooperate  in  the 
ownership  and  use  of  a  high  class  bull,  enables  the 
group  to  function  properly  in  the  production  of  beef 
or  dairy  products.  A  live  stock  breeders'  association 
provides  an  organized  means  of  developing  the  pro- 
duction of  all  kinds  of  live  stock,  and  organizes  the 
entire  business  into  a  community  function. 

If  the  people  of  an  agricultural  area  find  their  com- 
munity "running  down";  if,  in  spite  of  all  the  hard 
work  and  willingness  of  individuals,  the  nearness  to 
market,  the  access  to  capital,  etc.,  it  seems  impossible 
to  maintain  a  wholesome  and  progressive  community 
life,  a  diagnosis  of  the  situation  might  disclose  the 
fact  that  the  community  as  such  is  failing  to  per f o rm 
properly  its  function  in  production.  With  this  dis- 
covery there  will"  be  found  the  need  and  opportunity 
of  rural  organization  in  ordej-Jthat  this  function  may 
be  properly  performed. 

TYPICAL   ORGANIZATIONS   AND    PROJECTS 

Cow-Testing  Association  * 

In  November,  1912,  the  writer  (O.  E.  Reed)  and 
a  representative  of  the  Dairy  Division  of  the  United 

*  Bulletin,  Department  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  Kansas  State 
Agricultural  College,  1914,  by  O.  E.  Reed. 


Farm  Production  37 

States  Department  of  Agriculture,  assisted  by  a  num- 
ber of  local  business  men  at  Abilene,  Kan.,  succeeded 
in  organizing  the  first  cow-testing  association  in  Kan- 
sas. The  Dickinson  County,  Kansas,  Pioneer  Cow- 
Testing  Association  for  1913  started  with  twenty-two 
members,  representing  or  paying  for  379  cows. 

Each  man  was  assessed  a  dollar  a  cow  a  year,  pay- 
able quarterly.  No  member  paid  for  less  than  twelve 
cows.  Some  herds  contained  only  four  to  eight  cows, 
but  a  minimum  charge  for  twelve  was  necessary  in 
order  to  secure  enough  funds  in  filling  up  the  twenty- 
six  testing  days  for  each  month.  Two  members  used 
more  than  one  day.  One  man  required  three  days  to 
test  cows  for  Holstein  Advanced  Registry.  A  Jersey 
breeder  used  two  days  in  order  to  have  his  cows  tested 
for  the  Register  of  Merit.  These  members  were 
charged  at  the  regular  rate  for  the  extra  days. 

The  princi|ral_adyjante^ 

tion  is  in  obtaining  an  exact  record  for  each  cow  in 
the  herd.  A  v£ry_jTOn^ejryatiye^sjdmate ,Js_that..about 
one-third  ^jMJv^jg^JjflJKaiisas  d^  not  pay-4^f-4V"» 

feed  Jhey__eaL If.~a~.cow  does  not  produce  a  dollar's 

worth_of  milk  and  butter  fat  for  each  dollar's  worth 
of  food  consumed  she  is  a  poor  investment.  Cows  of 
this  sort  are  worse  than  boarders,  for  they  eat  up  the 
profit  made  by  the  good  cows.  With  these  facts  at 
hand,  it  can  easily  be  seen  that  there  is  a  great  oppor- 
tunity to  increase  the  net  profits  from  the  average 


5  9  7  0  9 


38  Rural  Organisation 

herd  by  spotting  the  poor  cows  and  discarding  them 
from  the  herd. 

Moreover,  knowing  the  record  of  production  of  the 
cows  in  a  herd  enables  one  to  feed  them  more  intelli- 
gently. It  is  a  common  practice  to  feed  all  the  cows 
in  the  herd  alike.  Under  these  conditions  the  poor  cow 
will  be  fed  too  much  and  the  good  cow  will  not  get 
enough.  The  proper  way  is  to  feed  each  cow  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  milk  she  produces.  When 
this  practice  is  adopted  it  usually  results  in  a  greater 
production  of  milk  on  less  feed. 

Another  advantage  the  members  have  is  the  sug- 
gestions and  advice  from  the  tester.  Very  often  he 
can  give  information  in  regard  to  feeding  the  cows 
that  will  prove  beneficial. 

A  record  made  by  a  man  regularly  employed  for  the 
purpose  has  a  greater  value  than  a  private  record  when 
one  wants  to  sell  an  animal  or  the  offspring  of  one 
of  the  animals  in  the  herd. 

If  desirable,  the  members  will  be  able  to  cooperate 
along  other  lines,  such  as  buying  feed  in  carload  lots, 
and  thereby  effect  a  great  saving. 

An  organization  of  this  kind  often  leads  to  com- 
munity breeding,  which  means  that  a  part  or  all  of 
the  members  decide  to  handle  only  one  breed  of  cattle. 
They  can  cooperate  in  buying  or  selling  breeding  stock, 
trade  herd  sires,  and  thereby  reduce  the  cost  of  keep- 
ing up  a  herd.  Continuous  breeding  of  a  definite  breed 
in  a  community  soon  establishes  a  center  for  the  breed. 


Farm  Production  39 

Buyers  will  be  attracted  to  this  community  and  all  sur- 
plus stock  can  be  readily  sold. 

When  one  desires  to  make  official  tests  on  the  cows 
in  his  herd,  it  can  be  done  at  less  expense  through  the 
cow-testing  association. 

Cooperative  Campaigns  for  the  Control  of  Rodents  * 

Some  idea  of  the  losses  suffered  by  individual  states 
from  native  rodents  may  be  obtained  from  the  follow- 
ing estimates  recently  submitted  by  directors  of  agri- 
cultural extension:  Montana,  $15,000,000  to  $20,- 
000,000;  North  Dakota,  $6,000,000  to  $9,000,000; 
Kansas,  $12,000,000;  Colorado,  $2,000,000;  Cali- 
fornia, $20,000,000;  Wyoming,  15  per  cent  of  all 
crops;  Nevada,  10  to  15  per  cent  of  all  crops,  or 
$1,000,000;  New  Mexico,  $1,200,000  loss  to  crops 
and  double  this  amount  to  range.  In  a  single  county 
of  Virginia,  losses  of  orchard  trees  from  depredations 
of  pine  mice  during  the  last  two  or  three  years  are 
estimated  at  not  less  than  $200,000.  Similarly  heavy 
losses  are  being  disclosed  in  other  states  as  attention 
is  being  directed  to  these  causes  of  decreased  produc- 
tion, causes  which  too  frequently  have  been  overlooked, 
unrecognized,  or  considered  unavoidable.  That  such 
losses  constitute  an  entirely  unnecessary  drain  npnn 


the  productive  capacity  of  the  farms,  and  that  they 

*  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  Separate 
No.  724—  W.  B.  Bell,  Assistant  Biologist. 


40  Rural  Organisation 

mayjbe.-  permanently  -eliminated  -at  a  cost  which  is  but 
a  small  fraction  of  the  damage  occasioned  during  a 
single  year,  has  been  abundantly  proved  by  the  exten- 
sive work  already  accomplished  in  campaigns  conducted 
by  the  Biological  Survey  in  cooperation  with  state  and 
county  organizations. 

The  fact  has  been  recognized  for  many  years  that 
community  cooperation  is  essential  to  the  effective 
control  of  rodents  which  feed  upon  agricultural  crops 
and  migrate  or  wander  from  place  to  place  in  search 
of  food  and  shelter.  During  the  last  four  years  plans 
have  been  conceived  and  put  into  operation  which  have 
effected  the  required  cooperation  of  many  thousands 
of  farmers  and  have  resulted  in  practical  elimination 
of  rodent  pests  over  millions  of  acres  of  valuable  agri- 
cultural land,  attended  by  an  enormous  direct  saving 
and  followed  by  increase  in  crops  produced.  The  eager- 
ness with  which  farmers  have  availed  themselves  of 
the  opportunity  to  join  in  concerted  movements  to  ob- 
tain relief  from  these  pests,  where  the  effectiveness  of 
modern  poisoning  methods  has  been  demonstrated,  is 
most  significant  and  gratifying,  while  the  returns  in 
increased  crop  yields  upon  the  amount  of  labor  and 
money  invested  in  the  community  campaigns  have  ex- 
ceeded all  expectation.  A  successful  fight  against  ro- 
dent pests  requires  that  all  local,  state,  and  national 
agencies  concerned  be  brought  into  harmonious  and 
effective  cooperation  and  that  methods  of  proved  effi- 
ciency be  used. 

An  initial  campaign  was  launched  against  the  Rich- 


Farm  Production  41 

ardson  ground  squirrel,  commonly  known  locally  as 
"gopher,"  This  animal  each  year  caused  enormous 
losses  of  grain,  despite  large  sums  which  were  being 
expended  in  unavailing  efforts  to  combat  it.  Farmers 
were  so  familiar  with  these  losses  that  little  effort 
was  required  to  convince  them  of  the  importance  of 
eradicating  this  pest.  So  many  kinds  of  poison  prepa- 
ration had  been  tried  by  them  at  great  expense  and 
with  unsatisfactory  results,  however,  that  they  were 
skeptical  about  the  practicability  of  all  such  means  ap- 
plied to  field  conditions.  Poison  was  devised  and  tested 
thoroughly  at  many  points  within  the  range  of  the 
ground  squirrel,  and  was  recommended  for  use.  Wide 
publicity  was  given  the  work  by  publications,  farmers' 
meetings,  and  field  demonstrations  throughout  the  in- 
fested portions  of  the  state.  The  demonstrations^  af-_ 
fording;  ^sjthey.  did.r.- ocular  evidence  in  the  form  of 
scores  _of  dead  ground  squirrels,  were  so  convincing 
that  ^kepticism  .gave  way  -to  the  greatest  enthusiasm 
and  willingness  to  join  in  a  concerted  organized  move- 
ment. .  .  . 

The  support  of  county  commissioners  and  township 
supervisors  was  enlisted  in  several  counties  where  it 
was  desirable  to  undertake  the  control  of  native  ro- 
dents, and  funds  were  provided  by  them  to  purchase 
poison  supplies  in  large  quantity,  thus  obtaining  much 
more  favorable  price  quotations.  Experts  in  rodent 
control  detailed  by  the  Biological  Survey,  aided  by 
county  agricultural  agents,  interested  and  organized 
the  farming  communities.  Entire  counties  were  organ- 


42  Rural  Organisation 

ized  in  this  systematic  voluntary  warfare  upon  the 
rodents,  using  the  township  as  a  convenient  working 
unit.  Poisoned  grain  was  prepared  in  quantity,  placed 
in  plainly  marked  containers,  and  distributed  to  farm- 
ers, who  then  applied  it,  according  to  directions,  about 
the  ground-squirrel  burrows  upon  their  farms.  .  .  . 

Satisfactory  progress  was  made  also  in  the  cam- 
paigns undertaken  against  jack  rabbits  in  California, 
Oregon,  Nevada,  Idaho,  and  Utah.  These  animals  at 
certain  seasons  congregate  in  large  numbers  upon 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  and  alfalfa  fields,  often  com- 
pletely devastating  them,  besides  destroying  great  quan- 
tities of  alfalfa  hay  in  the  stack.  A  farmer  in  Oregon 
writes,  "Jaclc  rabbits  are  so  bad  they  destroy  all  our 
grain.  If  we  cannot  obtain  some  help  to  get  rid  of 
these  pests,  we  will  have  to  do  as  other  settlers  are 
compelled  to  do — leave."  This  statement  is  charac- 
teristic of  expressions  from  farmers  throughout  the 
regions  where  these  animals  occur  in  destructive  abun- 
dance. The  farmers'  clubs  organized  for  systematic 
poisoning  of  these  pests  in  Crook  County,  Oregon, 
succeeded  in  destroying  59,000  during  the  winter  of 
1916-17,  making  a  total  of  at  least  134,000  jack  rab- 
bits killed  in  this  county  alone  since  the  campaigns 
there  were  first  undertaken.  Many  thousands  of  these 
animals  have  been  destroyed  in  campaigns  at  a  cost 
of  less  than  one-tenth  of  a  cent  each.  To  the  effective- 
ness of  this  work  the  saving  of  succeeding  crops  is 
largely  attributed. 


Farm  Production  43 

Insect  Pest  Control* 

Early  in  May  a  careful  survey  of  the  various  com- 
munities in  Finney  County  was  made  with  regard  to 
prospects  for  the  grasshoppers  hatching  out  in  damag- 
ing numbers.  Evidence  of  many  hoppers  could  every- 
where be  found  and  a  meeting  was  called  on  May  12, 
when  the  Farm  Bureau  Board  proceeded  to  work  out 
a  schedule  and  definite  plans  for  the  control  work. 

The  fourteen  communities  of  the  county  were  as- 
signed dates,  community  mixers  arranged  for,  and 
the  campaign  started  on  May  17  at  the  Holcomb 
school,  six  miles  west  of  Garden  City. 

The  Farm  Bureau  was  instructed  by  the  county 
commissioners  to  proceed  with  the  buying  of  a  car 
or  rriore  of  bran,  ten  tons  of  molasses,  three  tons  of 
arsenic,  lemons  in  crate  lots  and  such  other  materials 
and  equipment  as  would  be  needed. 

Within  two  weeks  after  the  campaign  started,  the 
entire  county  had  been  covered  by  communities  and 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  farmers  had  the  material 
on  hand,  ready  for  distribution.  Until  about  May  25, 
the  hoppers  were  thought  to  be  too  small  to  poison  to 
an  advantage,  but  since  that  time  efficient  use  of  the 
materials  distributed  has  been  made. 

By  June  1,  15  tons  of  bran,  15  barrels  of  syrup, 
$125  worth  of  lemons  and  nearly  one  ton  of  arsenic 

*  Official  report  of  Chas.  E.  Cassel,  County  Agent,  Finney 
County,  Kansas,  June,  1920. 


44  Rural  Organisation 

had  been  distributed  to  the  farmers  of  the  county.  The 
county  paid  all  expenses  of  materials  which  were 
bought  in  wholesale  lots  and  a  truck  was  furnished  to 
dray  the  materials  to  the  various  neighborhood  centers 
for  distribution. 

Seven  communities  were  visited  and  other  districts 
are  planning  to  establish  these  central  mixing  points. 

Community  Breeding  Association* 

The  first  unorganized  community  breeding  in  Amer- 
ica, perhaps,  was  that  of  Merino  production  in  Ver- 
mont, Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio.  The  first  flocks  of 
importance  were  established  very  early  in  the  last  cen- 
tury, and  by  the  middle  of  the  century  many  flocks 
of  Merino  occupied  the  hills  of  Vermont,  western 
Pennsylvania,  and  eastern  Ohio.  So  famous  did  Ver- 
mont become  as  a  Merino  center  that  in  far-away  Aus- 
tralia, to  which  these  sheep  were  exported,  the  natives 
supposed  all  Merinos  from  America  were  grown  in 
that  state,  and  they  were  known  as  Vermont  Merinos. 

The  first  organized  community  breeding  association 
in  America,  so  far  as  the  writer  can  learn,  was  the 
Western  Reserve  Holstein-Friesian  Association,  which 
was  organized  in  1905  at  Burton,  Geauga  County, 
Ohio.  Later  the  name  was  changed  to  the  Geauga 
County  Holstein-Friesian  Association.  This  organiza- 
tion had  a  very  successful  start,  and  in  the  spring  of 
1912  had  154  members,  representing  4000  head  of 
*  Ohio  State  University  Extension  Bulletin  by  Chas.  S.  Plumb. 


Farm  Production  45 

cattle.  The_primarv  purpose  of  this  association^  to 
extend_jhe  interest  in  the  Holstein-Friesian  breed  of 
cattle  in  the  communityf  and  to  encourage  among  the 
members_intellectual  and  social  development.  An  an- 
nual picnic  is  a  feature  of  this  association,  on  which 
occasion  some  guest  of  prominence  is  invited  to  address 
the  members.  This  association  has  been  most  success- 
ful, and  large  numbers  of  cattle  have  been  shipped  from 
the  herds  of  its  members  to  various  parts  of  America, 
as  well  as  to  Mexico,  Japan,  and  South  Africa.  Many 
great  milk  and  butterfat  records  of  the  world-breaking 
class  have  been  made  in  these  herds.  .  .  . 

The  Waukesha  County  (Wisconsin)  Guernsey 
Breeders'  Association,  established  in  1906,  is  one  of 
the  most  notable  community  breeding  associations  in 
America,  and  deserves  notice  here,  as  demonstrating 
what  cooperation  may  do  for  a  breed.  In  1908  the 
members  of  this  association  owned  277  purebred  and 
436  grade  Guernseys,  and  by  1914  the  purebreds  had 
increased  to  2000.  In  7  years  we  see  an  increase  of 
700  per  cent  in  the  Guernseys  in  this  county.  During 
the  4  years  1910-1914,  the  butterfat  production  in 
the  county  increased  an  average  of  100  pounds  per 
cow.  At  the  annual  sale  of  the  association  in  1918 
there  were  sold  $23,460  worth  of  cattle  in  one  day. 
Sixty-one  head  averaged  $383  each.  In  one  year  66 
breeders  in  this  county  are  reported  as  owning  over 
$400,000  worth  of  Guernseys.  From  a  very  modest 
beginning  with  a  membership  of  1 0,  Waukesha  County 
has  become  the  Guernsey  center  of  America,  and  is  a 


46  Rural  Organisation 

notable  example  of  what  may  be  accomplished  by  in- 
telligent community  breeding. 

The  Delaware  County  (Ohio)  Percheron  Breeders' 
Association,  organized  in  1913,  represents  a  coopera- 
tive movement  in  the  community,  where  Percheron 
horses  have  been  bred  since  the  middle  of  the  last 
century.  This  organization  is  primarily  to  promote 
the  Percheron  horse  breeding  industry  in  Delaware  and 
adjoining  counties  in  Ohio.  Article  II  of  the  consti- 
tution, outlining  the  object  of  the  association,  specifies : 
(1)  Closer  business  relationship  between  farmer, 
breeder,  seller,  and  buyer;  (2)  advocating  cooperation 
in  horse  buying,  breeding,  and  selling ;  ( 3  )  the  dissem- 
ination of  educational  matter  relative  to  breeding,  rear- 
ing, feeding,  and  management;  (4)  to  assist  in  the 
observation  and  enforcement  of  existing  legislation  re- 
lating to  ownership  of  stallions  for  public  service  and 
encourage  and  insist  upon  honest  registration;  (5)  to 
assist  farmers  and  breeders  in  obtaining  purebred  stal- 
lions and  making  sales ;  ( 6 )  to  encourage  proper  clas- 
sification and  premium  lists  for  horses  at  state,  county 
and  other  fairs;  (7)  to  discourage  the  use  of  unsound 
stallions  and  mares  for  breeding ;  ( 8 )  to  encourage  the 
use  of  purebreds,  and  educate  against  the  use  of  grade 
and  crossbred  sires. 

This  association  holds  a  Percheron  show  each  fall, 
and  employs  judges  of  national  reputation  to  make 
the  awards.  The  Percheron  show  at  Delaware  is  the 
main  attraction  of  the  so-called  Delaware  Pumpkin 
Show,  and  large  numbers  of  people  attend.  Each  year 


Farm  Prod  47 

at  the  Ohio  State  Fair,  in  the  Perci;]eron  classes  Dela- 
ware County  is  largely  represented.  The  association 
has  about  85  members,  most  of  whom  own  small  studs. 
This  is  one  of  the  largest  Percheron  breeding  com- 
munities in  the  United  States,  and  buyers  come  here 
from  a  wide  range  of  territory  outside  of  Ohio.  In* 
1917  five  head  were  purchased  from  this  community  \ 
for  shipment  to  Japan. 

Better  Poultry  through  Community  Breeding 
Associations  * 

The  Petaluma  district  of  California,  the  Little  Comp- 
ton  section  of  Rhode  Island,  and  the  Vineland  com- 
munity of  New  Jersey  have  received  national  recogni- 
tion as  important  producing  centers  of  poultry  and 
eggs.  Yet  probably  those  districts  would  be  heard  of 
but 


poultry.   A^commimity  interest  in  any  one  type,  breed, 

or   vanpty__of_liYe   stnr.k   is   one   of   the—greatest    steps 

toward  better  and  more  profitable  agriculture  that  a 
rural  sjec^ojT^^an_jnaugura.te.  Community  poultry- 
Breeding  associations  are  the  natural  and  logical  out- 
growth of  poultry  educational  work.  In  numerous 
cases,  they  have  followed  activities  by  the  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  and  state  agricultural  colleges 
in  encouraging  boys'  and  girls'  poultry  clubs. 

Besides    the    various    general    advantages    derived 

*  United      States      Department      of     Agriculture      Yearbook 
Separate  No.  778,  1918,  by  J.  W.  Kinghorne. 


48  Rural  Organization 

through  cooperative  effort,  a  community  poultry-breed- 
ing club  creates  additional  interest  by  centering  all  its 
efforts  on  one  Weed  or  variety  of  fowl.  Under  such 
an  arrangement  all  the  members  raise  the  same  kind 
of  poultry,  rand  consequently  their  interests  are  mutual. 
The  best  'methods  of  handling  and  breeding  the  ac- 
cepted l^reed  or  variety  soon  become  common  knowl- 
edge so  far  as  the  association  is  concerned,  and  each 
member's  experience  is  of  value  to  the  other  members. 
Thus  by  concentrating  all  their  efforts  on  one  breed  of 
poultry,  the  members  build  up  a  local  industry  that 
eventually  becomes  known  as  an  important  source  of 
supply  for  fowls  and  eggs  for  market,  eggs  for  hatch- 
ing, breeding  stock,  and  day-old  chicks.  More  than 
that,  cooperative  community  poultry-breeding  associa- 
tions can  be  developed  further  to  include  cooperative 
buying.  This  is  a  direct  means  of  reducing  consider- 
ably the  cost  of  feeds,  supplies,  and  other  necessary 
materials.  Establishment  of  community  breeding  cen- 
ters does  not  imply  that  the  members  of  the  associa- 
tion are  engaged  in  the  production  of  poultry  to  the 
exclusion  of  other  farm  products.  On  the  other  hand, 
most  of  the  poultry-breeding  organizations  that  have 
been  fostered  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
state  colleges  have  been  in  communities  where  general 
farming  is  practiced. 

Development  of  community  poultry-breeding  asso- 
ciations has  been  especially  noteworthy  in  Kentucky, 
North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Virginia.  In  practi- 
cally every  case  the  interest  in  poultry  keeping,  which 


Farm  Production  49 

is  now  evident  on  all  sides,  is  in  marked  contrast  to 
the  former  careless  methods  and  lack  of  interest. 


Cooperative  Bull  Association  * 

Cooperative  Bull  Associations  are  formed  by  farm- 
ers for  the  joint  ownership,  use,  and  exchange  of  pure- 
bred bulls.  The  purchase  price  and  cost  of  maintenance 
are  distributed  according  to  the  number  of  cows  owned 
by  each,  thereby  giving  the  farmer  an  opportunity  to 
build  up  his  herd  at  a  minimum  expense.  The  organiza- 
tion also  helps  its  members  to  market  dairy  stock  and 
dairy  products,  to  fight  contagious  diseases  of  cattle 
intelligently,  and  in  other  ways  assists  in  improving 
the  dairy  industry. 

The  bull  association  does  not  give  something  for 
nothing,  but  with  an  outlay  of  $50  can  furnish  a 
share  in  five  purebred  bulls.  These  bulls  can  not  in- 
crease the  production  of  the  cows  in  a  herd,  but  they 
may  double  the  production  of  their  daughters.  The 
daughters  of  association  bulls  and  grade  cows  can  never 
be  registered,  but  in  all  other  respects  they  may  be 
the  equal  of  purebreds. 

Cooperative  bull  associations  have  existed  in  Europe 
for  a  long  period.  In  the  United  States  the  first  co- 
operative venture  of  which  there  is  any  record  was 
started  in  1908  by  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College. 
On  July  1,  1917,  there  were  36  active  associations 

*  Farmers'  Bulletin  993,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, by  Joel  G.  Winkjer. 


50  Rural  Organisation 

in  17  states,  with  a  total  membership  of  1158,  own- 
ing 189  purebred  bulls. 

The  history  of  the  cooperative  bull  association  shows 
that  it  is  especially  adapted  to  sir  ill  herds,  where  a 
valuable  bull  for  each  herd  would  c  institute  too  large 
a  part  of  the  total  investment.  Thus  the  organization 
enables  the  owners  of  small  herds  to  unite  in  the  pur- 
chase of  one  good  bull,  so  that  each  may  own  a  share 
in  a  registered  sire  of  high  quality.  Though  still  in 
its  infancy,  the  cooperative  bull  association  movement 
promises  to  become  eventually  a  very  great  factor  in 
the  improvement  of  our  dairy  cattle. 

The  typical  cooperative  bull  association,  as  organized 
in  this  country,  is  composed  of  from  15  to  30  farmers 
and  jointly  owns  five  bulls.  Its  territory  is  divided  into 
five  "breeding  blocks,"  one  bull  being  assigned  to  each 
block.  As  many  as  50  or  60  cows  may  belong  to  the 
farmers  in  each  block,  and  the  bull  in  the  block  should 
be  kept  on  a  farm  conveniently  situated.  To  prevent 
inbreeding,  each  bull  is  moved  to  the  next  block  every 
two  years.  If  all  the  bulls  live,  and  if  all  are  kept  until 
each  has  made  one  complete  circuit,  no  new  bulls  need 
be  purchased  for  ten  years.  In  this  way  each  member 
of  the  association  has  the  use  of  good  purebred  bulls 
for  many  years,  at  a  cost  of  only  a  small  part  of  the 
purchase  price  of  one  bull.  Ordinarily  the  purchase 
price  and  the  expense  of  supporting  the  bulls  are  dis- 
tributed among  the  members  of  the  association  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  cows  owned  by  each. 

A  typical  association  is  composed  of  16  farmers 
and  is  organized  into  five  blocks.  The  farms  are  so 


Farm  Production  51 

situated  that  the  bulls  are  at  no  great  distance  from 
the  farm  of  any  member.  Before  the  association  was 
formed,  each  farmer  had  an  average  investment  of 
$89  in  a  scrub  bull.  These  bulls  were  disposed  of 
when  the  association  was  formed,  and  five  purebred 
bulls  were  bought  at  $240  each,  or  an  average  of  $75 
for  each  member.  A  larger  membership  would  reduce 
the  expenses  still  further.  As  in  other  associations,  the 
farmers  united  in  the  use  of  one  breed  and  selected 
good  bulls  of  that  breed. 

An  advanced  step  which  has  not  yet  been  taken  by 
any  association  is  the  purchase  of  an  exceptionally  good 
bull  to  mate  with  the  best  cows  in  the  herds  of  every 
block.  Such  a  plan  for  improvement  of  the  better  cows 
of  the  herd  is  applicable  to  purebred  herds  as  well  as 
grade  herds. 

For  the  purebred  herd  the  cooperative  bull  associa- 
tion undoubtedly  will  do  as  much  as  for  the  grade 
herd,  because  it  enables  the  breeders  of  any  class  of 
stock  to  buy  better  bulls  than  they  otherwise  could 
afford.  In  case  the  association  is  large  and  composed 
of  well-to-do  breeders  of  purebred  dairy  cattle,  bulls 
of  the  highest  class  for  use  with  all  the  cows  are  within 
its  reach  financially. 

The  Threshing  Ring  * 

Farmers  have  long  recognized  the  advantage  of  ex- 
changing help  as  a  means  of  securing  larger  crews  than 

*  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Yearbook  Separate, 
1918,  by  J.  C.  Rundles. 


52  Rural  Organisation 

the  farm  affords.  The  plan  of  organizing  definite 
threshing  rings  or  circles,  which  guarantee  those  in- 
side the  club  the  amount  of  help  they  need,  has  been 
tried  in  different  sections  of  the  Corn  Belt  during  the 
last  decade  or  more.  At  the  same  time,  cooperative 
ownership  and  management  of  threshing  machinery 
has  been  tried  with  more  or  less  success  in  many  com- 
munities. 

The  advantages  of  systematic  cooperation,  as  usually 
cited,  whether  the  threshing  ring  is  owned  or  hired  by 
the  circle,  may  be  summarized  briefly  as  follows :  ( 1 ) 
The  threshing  order  is  so  arranged  that  the  least  pos- 
sible time  is  lost  in  moving  from  farm  to  farm.  (2) 
As  a  job  nears  completion,  the  first  men  through,  know- 
ing their  assignments  and  the  next  place,  may  go  im- 
mediately and  have  the  grain  ready  to  be  threshed  by 
the  time  the  outfit  arrives  and  is  set.  (3)  No  time  is 
lost  either  in  contracting  an  outfit  or  in  securing  a 
threshing  crew,  for  that  is  arranged  for  in  advance. 

(4)  Certain  men  may  be  utilized  most  efficiently  by 
assigning  them  to  one  kind  of  work  for  the  season. 

(5)  Unless  the  weather  prevents,  the  threshing  con- 
tinues until  all  the  jobs  are  completed  in  the  circle,  thus 
little  extra  work  is  required  in  shifting  wagon  boxes 
or  hay  loaders.    (6)  The  labor  of  putting  the  crop  in 
the  barn  can  be  dispensed  with.     (7)   The  threshing 
season  is  greatly  shortened.    (8)   The  ordinary  farm 
work  is  usually  postponed  until  the  threshing  is  all 
done,  and  thus  the  farm  labor  schedule  is  not  seri- 
ously interfered  with.   As  a  result,  the  oats  stubble  can 


Farm  Production  53 

be  plowed  considerably  sooner,  the  seed  bed  for  wheat 
can  be  more  thoroughly  prepared,  there  is  more  time 
to  haul  and  scatter  manure  and  to  attend  to  early  fall 
work,  and  thus  the  farmer  has  a  better  chance  to  keep 
ahead  of  his  work. 

Membership  in  a  threshing  ring  serves  to  relieve  the 
farmer  of  much  anxiety  and  worry:  (1)  Each  mem- 
ber is  assured  that  a  machine  for  doing  his  work  has 
been  arranged  for.  (2)  The  chances  of  losing  his 
grain  are  reduced  to  a  minimum  and  a  smaller  per- 
centage is  lost  or  damaged.  (3)  A  member  can  cal- 
culate approximately  his  time  to  thresh,  for  he  knows 
the  order  of  threshing  and  the  acreage  ahead  of  his, 
and  the  women  can  plan  accordingly.  (4)  The  plan 
usually  guarantees  him  most  of  his  necessary  help. 
(5)  The  credit  for  labor  differences  may  be  properly 
adjusted.  (6)  The  cooperative  spirit  may  extend  to 
other  lines  of  work  and  its  influence  may  be  felt  in  a 
social  way,  as,  for  instance,  the  threshing  season  in 
a  number  of  rings  ends  with  an  annual  picnic. 

A  circle  should  include  at  least  as  many  farms  as 
would  be  necessary  to  supply  the  hands  needed  to  do 
a  job  of  threshing  most  efficiently.  That  number  will 
depend  largely  upon  the  capacity  of  the  outfit.  When 
the  threshing  ring  is  one  of  the  largest,  and  the  farms 
have  a  very  large  grain  acreage  to  thresh,  the  purpose 
of  cooperation  may  be  defeated,  for  the  help  can  not 
be  handled  to  the  best  advantage,  the  last  jobs  are  too 
long  postponed,  and  too  much  time  is  lost  in  exchang- 
ing help  at  a  distance.  In  case  the  machine  is  idle,  be- 


54  Rural  Organization 

cause  of  a  breakdown  or  bad  weather,  too  much  time 
is  lost  with  a  large  threshing  ring.  Only  a  few  of  the 
very  large  rings  have  proved  successful.  In  most  cases 
circles  with  a  combined  acreage  of  1000  acres  or  more 
to  thresh  have  found  it  advisable  to  reorganize  in 
smaller  units. 


Typical  Instance — The  Madison  Creek 
Threshing  Company 

The  Madison  Creek  Threshing  Company  was  or- 
ganized on  June  6,  1911,  about  five  miles  north  of 
Milford,  Kansas. 

This  generally  being  a  poor  locality  for  carrying  on 
threshing  as  a  money-making  business,  it  was  impos- 
sible for  the  farmers  to  secure  competent  threshermen 
and  first  class  machines  to  do  their  work.  Due  to  this 
condition,  a  meeting  of  all  those  interested  in  a  co- 
operative threshing  outfit  was  called  by  Mr.  W.  A. 
Sharp.  Several  farmers  responded,  and  an  organiza- 
tion was  then  formed  which  is  still  working  success- 
fully. 

The  number  of  members  is  limited  to  ten  and  all 
members  must  own  equal  shares.  The  charge  for 
threshing  is  the  same  as  for  other  machines,  whether 
the  work  done  is  for  a  member  or  some  one  outside 
of  the  company.  Each  year  the  total  expense  is  sub- 
tracted from  the  total  income  and  the  difference  is 
divided  equally  among  the  members  of  the  company. 
As  no  fund  is  kept  for  buying  new  machinery,  it  will 


Farm  Production  55 

be  necessary  to  assess  the  members  when  new  machin- 
ery is  needed.  So  far,  the  amount  to  be  rebated  back 
to  the  members  has  been  about  five  hundred  dollars 
per  year. 

Besides  a  president,  secretary,  and  treasurer,  there 
is  a  manager  elected,  who  has  charge  of  the  routing 
of  the  machine,  the  hiring  of  men,  the  securing  of 
work,  etc.  The  manager  always  has  been  either  the 
engineer  or  separator-tender. 

The  benefit  of  the  enterprise  has  been  more  in  the 
way  of  money  saving  than  in  money  making,  in  that 
it  gets  the  work  done  in  good  shape  and  at  the  proper 
time.  As  a  money  maker  little  can  be  said  excepting 
that  it  probably  will  have  more  than  paid  for  the 
machine  and  all  expenses,  including  interest  on  the 
money  invested,  by  the  time  the  machine  is  worn  out. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  To  what  extent  may  farm  production  be  made  a  community 

function?    What  are  the  limits  of  such  development? 

2.  What  are  some  corrective  measures  that  require  community 

organization  ? 

3.  To  what  extent  has  the  community  a  moral  right  to  demand 

that  the  individual  farmer  join  in  organized  attempts  to 
eradicate  crop  and  animal  pests  and  diseases? 

4.  What   are    some   constructive  activities    that   prosper   most 

through  group  action? 

5.  What  is  a  cow-testing  association? 

6.  Describe  briefly  a  campaign  for  the  eradication  of  rodents. 

7.  Describe  a  county  agent's  campaign  for  the  eradication  of 

grasshoppers. 

8.  What  is  a  community  breeding  association? 


56  Rural  Organisation 

9.  What  is  a  threshing  ring?  What  other  farm  work  besides 
threshing  might  be  better  developed  through  group  organi- 
zation ? 

RESEARCH  PROBLEMS 

1.  What  are  our  chief  local  farm  products? 

2.  Is  this  a  "one-crop"  community? 

3.  What  other  farm  enterprises  should  be  introduced? 

4.  What  new  types  of  farm  equipment  or  machinery  are  needed? 

5.  What  are  our  soil  problems? 

6.  What,  in  this  community,  is  the  probable  annual   cost  of 

insect    pests?      Rodents?      Plant    diseases?      How    best 
eliminated  ? 

7.  Is  there  a  drainage  problem  here? 

8.  Is  irrigation  necessary  or  feasible? 

9.  What  local  organizations  are  there  for  the  purpose  of  better 

or  larger  production,  and  what  are  they  accomplishing? 

10.  What  other  organizations   (such  as  cow-testing  association, 

a  breeders'  association,  a  bull  club,  etc.)    should  be  en- 
couraged ? 

11.  What  is  the  relation  of  farm  tenantry,  locally,  to  production? 

To  what  extent  does  it  prevail?    How  best  corrected? 

12.  What  type  of  land  leasing  prevails,  and  how  does  it  influence 

production? 


CHAPTER  II 

MARKETING 

Need  of  Organisation 

THE  rural  community  which  greatly  increases  pro- 
duction, but  does  not  function  properly  in  marketing, 
may  bring  to  itself  an  injury  rather  than  a  benefit. 
This  is  eventually  as  fatal  as  it  would  be  for  an  indi- 
vidual to  stimulate  and  satisfy  the  function  of  eating 
without  properly  providing  for  the  function  of  elimina- 
tion. It  takes  more  time,  money,  and  effort  to  "make 
two  blades  of  grass  grow  where  one  grew  before,"  and 
it  impoverishes  people  to  do  so  if  there  is  not  a  means 
whereby  that  extra  blade  of  grass  can  be  utilized  in 
a  way  that  will  justify  the  expense  of  producing  it. 

The  lack  of  organized  arrangements  for  perform- 
ing the  marketing  function  was  not  so  noticeable  in 
the  time  when  the  farmer  produced  on  his  own  land 
and  by  the  labor  of  himself  and  his  family  practi- 
cally all  of  the  necessities  of  life,  and  could  take  time 
(which  was  of  little  value)  for  hauling  small  loads, 
great  distances,  with  teams  of  oxen,  or  with  the  same 
abundant  leisure,  and  with  free  pasturage  en  route, 
could  drive  his  cattle  across  entire  states  if  necessary 
in  order  to  market  them.  But  under  modern  condi- 

57 


58  Rural  Organization 

tions,  when  time  is  worth  big  money  and  the  farm 
is  a  manufacturing  plant  turning  out  its  own  specialized 
product,  which  must  be  sold  readily  for  money  which 
is  to  be  used  in  turn  to  keep  the  "factory"  going — such 
independent  and  individualistic  methods  fall  down.  If 
the  community  is  to  organize  to  produce  something  that 
is  worth  producing,  then  it  is  just  as  necessary  that 
the  community  should  organize  to  market  that  product 
properly. 

Community  Action  Desirable 

One  finds  now  a  continually  increasing  number  of 
farmers  who  raise  their  own  feed  and  their  own  live- 
stock, cooperating  in  these  enterprises  through  the 
farm  bureau  and  the  live-stock  breeders'  association. 
Such  a  fanner  gives  his  entire  attention  to  the  one 
big  specialty  of  producing  cattle  and  hogs  for  the  mar- 
ket. At  the  proper  time,  he  turns  the  product  over 
to  his  live-stock  marketing  association. 

Through  this  agency  the  community  as  such  per- 
forms its  marketing  function,  and  the  individual  farmer 
remains  at  his  own  post ;  he  no  longer  tries  individually 
and  alone  to  perform  that  which  has  come  to  be  recog- 
nized as  a  community  function. 

Other  examples  of  this  recognition  of  marketing  as 
a  community  function  rather  than  as  an  individual 
function  are  found  in  the  very  successful  farmers'  ele- 


Marketing  59 

vators,  fruit  marketing  associations,  and,  in  short,  mar- 
keting associations  for  every  sort  of  farm  product. 


Close  Relation  with  Organised  Action  in  Production 

In  this  connection  must  be  noted  carefully  the  close 
relationship  of  the  functions  of  production  and  market- 
ing. A  marketing  association  ordinarily  must  be  for 
the  purpose  of  marketing  a  definite  product  of  which 
there  is  an  ample  quantity  to  warrant  organization  for 
marketing.  Because  a  marketing  association  of  a  cer- 
tain type  has  been  successful  in  one  community,  it 
does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  same  type  of  asso- 
ciation will  be  successful  in  another  community.  Or- 
ganization for  agricultural  production  must  usually 
precede,  or  at  least  parallel,  organization  for  market- 
ing. A  farmers'  elevator  for  handling  and  marketing 
the  grain  of  a  community  will  not  be  a  paying  venture 
unless  a  survey  has  shown  that  the  community  pro- 
duces normally  enough  grain  to  warrant  such  an  estab- 
lishment. A  milk  condensing  and  shipping  company  of 
a  type  which  has  been  very  successful  in  one  com- 
munity might  utterly  fail  in  another  community  be- 
cause of  the  lack  of  a  sufficient  production  of  milk.  No 
matter  what  flattering  reports  of  community  rehabili- 
tation through  a  live-stock  shipping  association  come 
from  a  certain  locality  to  a  grain  or  fruit  producing 
section,  the  people  of  such  a  section  will,  of  course, 


60  Rural  Organisation 

not  be  tempted  into  organizing  such  an  association  un- 
less they  first  decide  for  some  reason  to  change  from 
grain  and  fruit  production  to  live  stock  production,  or 
to  add  the  latter  to  the  former  as  a  part  of  their  farm 
industries. 


Organising  in  Terms  of  Major  Products 

Since  a  local  community  cannot  easily  develop  with 
success  an  unlimited  number  of  production  or  market- 
ing associations,  it  becomes  obvious  that  a  given  com- 
munity will  do  best  to  develop  through  organization  at 
least  one  major  type  of  production,  and  organize  for 
the  marketing  of  that  special  product.  It  is  certainly 
clear  also  that  we  are  rapidly  passing  out  of  the  time 
when  community  finances  can  be  built  up  by  the  proc- 
ess of  individuals  producing  any  varieties  of  any  prod- 
ucts that  may  suit  their  convenience  or  whims,  and 
depending  upon  chance  for  individuals  to  market  those 
products  in  the  same  hit  or  miss  way  in  which  they 
were  produced.  Where  production  and  marketing  are 
not  speedily  recognized  as  parallel  functions  of  an  agri- 
Cultural  community,  no  excessive  encouragement  of  any 
other  functions  will  save  that  community  from  an  eco- 
nomically diseased^ondition.  People  need  not  be  de- 
ceived into  thinking  that  any  other  activities — social, 
educational,  or  otherwise — will  take  the  place  of  these 
functions  in  agricultural  community  development. 


Marketing  61 

TYPICAL   ORGANIZATIONS   AND   PROJECTS 

Cooperative  Marketing  Associations  * 

The  farmer  is  himself  a  manufacturer,  but  when  the 
manner  of  selling  his  products  is  observed  the  con- 
clusion is  formed  that  his  marketing  methods  are  not 
worthy  of  the  name,  as  they  consist  chiefly  of  "dump- 
ing" rather  than  of  marketing. 

Many  a  case  of  so-called  "overproduction"  is  only 
a  failure  to  distribute  properly  the  products  to  the 
points  where  they  are  desired.  While  one  market  suf- 
fers from  congestion,  caused  by  an  oversupply,  another 
may  be  suffering  for  want  of  a  sufficient  amount,  and 
at  the  same  time  tons  of  food  products  may  be  wasting 
in  fields  and  orchards  for  want  of  a  profitable  market. 
The  remedy  lies  in  a  more  uniform  distribution. 

Many  reformers  attribute  marketing  difficulties  to 
the  presence  of  so  many  speculators  and  middlemen; 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  these  intermediary 
agents  have  come  into  existence  to  perform  services 
that  the  farmer  fails  to  perform  for  himself.  If  the 
farmer  will  not  or  can  not  arrange  to  finance  his  busi- 
ness, he  must  expect  to  pay  others  to  do  it  for  him. 
If  he  will  not  or  can  not  store  his  crops  and  hold  them 

*  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Yearbook  Separate 
No.  637,  1914 — Cooperative  Marketing,  and  Financing  of  Mar- 
keting Associations,  by  C.  E.  Bassett  and  Clarence  W.  Moomaw 
and  W.  H.  Kerr. 


62  Rural  Organisation 

until  the  markets  are  ready  to  use  them,  he  calls  into 
existence  a  class  of  speculators  who  demand  and  re- 
ceive a  liberal  price  for  taking  the  chance  and  perform- 
ing these  services.  If  he  is  unable  personally  to  dis- 
tribute his  crops  and  deal  direct  with  the  consumer,  he 
must  employ  agents  or  commission  men  to  do  this  work 
for  him.  All  of  these  agents  must  be  paid,  and  most 
of  them  are  in  a  position  to  collect  their  charge,  whether 
or  not  the  consignor  realizes  anything  at  all. 

The  producers  of  perishable  products  that  are  grown 
at  a  great  distance  from  the  consuming  markets  have 
been  the  first  class  to  be  driven  to  a  system  of  co- 
operative marketing.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
the  best  organized  cooperative  marketing  associations 
in  America  are  found  among  the  California  citrus- 
fruit  and  nut  growers  and  the  deciduous-fruit  growers 
of  the  Pacific  Northwest.  The  perishable  ^nature  of 

heavy   transportation   expense 


have_compelled  the  growers  to  organize  and  stay  or- 
ganized,  so  that  they  might  growthe  best,grade  and 
pack  honestly,  distribute  evenly,  and_jTiaxkdL_£C£uiojni- 


The  work  of  the  marketing  associations  includes  the 
establishing  of  grades  and  standards;  the  adoption  of 
brands  and  trademarks;  the  securing  of  capital  and 
credit;  proper  advertising  to  encourage  consumption 
of  a  meritorious  but  little  known  product;  discovery 
of  new  and  extension  of  old  markets;  securing  infor- 
mation as  to  crop  and  market  conditions  ;  the  equitable 


Marketing  63 

division  of  profits,  adapting  production  to  meet  mar- 
ket requirements;  the  use  of  by-products;  securing 
cold  and  common  storage  facilities;  the  cooperative 
buying  and  manufacturing  of  supplies;  cooperative 
use  of  expensive  farm  machinery;  securing  of  lower 
freight  rates,  more  equitable  refrigeration  charges,  and 
more  efficient  transportation  service;  the  securing  of 
more  and  better  labor;  and  the  general  cultivation  of 
a  spirit  of  cooperation  in  all  community  affairs. 

Farmers  must  be  willing  to  furnish  their  products, 
invest  their  share  of  the  necessary  capital,  and  at  all 
times  give  their  enthusiasm  and  most  loyal  support  to 
the  cooperative  enterprise  undertaken.  Frequently  a 
member  offers  to  "let"  the  association  handle  a  part 
of  his  products,  forgetting  that  the  favor  is  to  himself 
rather  than  to  the  organization,  and  that  the  part  of 
his  crops  which  he  holds  back  furnishes  the  most  diffi- 
cult competition  for  the  cooperative  effort  to  face.  The 
person  who  lacks  sufficient  faith  in  the  cooperative  plan 
to  "go  in  all  over"  will  prove  an  element  of  weakness 
rather  than  of  strength. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  there  are  many  who  prefer 
to  ship  their  products  to  a  distant  market,  of  which 
they  know  practically  nothing,  to  be  handled  by  some 
firm,  of  whom  they  know  less,  rather  than  to  have 
their  property  marketed  by  a  competent  manager  of 
their  own  selection,  acting  under  surety  bonds,  and 
who  is  directly  answerable  to  themselves.  A  person 
who  prefers  to  patronize  a  market  lottery,  when  he 


64  Rural  Organization 

knows  from  experience  that  his  prospect  of  drawing  a 
prize  is  very  improbable,  is  not  ready  for  a  united  effort 
with  his  neighbors. 

Farming  communities  cooperate  to  secure  better 
churches,  better  local  government,  and  better  schools. 
If  they  are  willing  to  leave  their  religion,  their  politics, 
and  the  education  of  their  children  to  cooperation,  why 
should  they  hesitate  to  leave  the  marketing  of  their 
farm  crops  to  a  cooperative  system  that  has  passed 
the  experimental  stage? 

The  California  Fruit  Growers'  Exchange  is  a  co- 
operative organization  of  citrus  growers  through  which 
over  60  per  cent  of  the  citrus  fruit  shipped  out  of 
California  is  distributed.  The  annual  report  of  the 
general  manager  for  the  year  ending  August  31,  1916, 
shows  that  the  exchange  shipped  24,024  cars  of 
oranges  and  grapefruit  and  5799  cars  of  lemons  dur- 
ing the  year.  The  amount  returned  to  the  growers  for 
this  fruit  exceeded  $27,000,000.  At  present  over 
8000  growers  are  members  of  the  exchange. 

The  growers  are  organized  into  local  associations, 
which  in  turn  are  members  of  district  exchanges,  and 
these  are  united  in  the  central  exchange.  The  local 
associations  are  made  up  of  the  growers  in  a  com- 
munity, the  membership  ranging  from  40  to  200.  The 
fruit  is  assembled  and  prepared  for  shipment  by  the 
local  associations.  The  district  exchanges  order  cars 
for  the  local  associations  in  their  respective  districts, 
keep  records  of  the  cars  shipped,  receive  the  returns 


Marketing  65 

from  the  central  exchange  and  distribute  the  proceeds 
to  the  local  associations,  and  keep  the  local  associations 
informed  with  regard  to  matters  pertaining  to  the 
industry.  The  central  exchange  provides  the  facilities 
for  the  distribution  and  marketing  of  the  fruit  of  its 
members. 

The  California  Fruit  Growers'  Exchange  has  agen- 
cies in  the  principal  markets  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  which  represent  the  exchange  and  its  members 
exclusively.  In  this  way  the  exchange  is  able  to  exer- 
cise careful  supervision  over  the  distribution  of  the 
products  of  its  members  and  also  to  secure  daily  infor- 
mation with  regard  to  conditions  in  the  various  mar- 
kets. The  exchange  has  a  number  of  departments  which 
undertake  different  lines  of  work.  Thus,  the  sales  de- 
partment looks  after  the  marketing  of  the  fruit;  the 
traffic  department  takes  up  matters  relative  to  trans- 
portation; the  field  department  assists  in  the  standard- 
ization of  the  fruit  and  its  preparation  for  market,  and 
also  in  securing  new  members ;  the  advertising  depart- 
ment handles  the  work  of  advertising  the  products  of 
its  members;  and  the  legal  department  keeps  the  ex- 
change and  its  members  informed  with  regard  to  legis- 
lation affecting  the  industry. 

Supplies  needed  by  the  growers  are  purchased 
through  a  separate  organization  known  as  the  Fruit 
Growers'  Supply  Company.  This  company  reports 
handling  a  business  of  over  $4,000,000  during  the 
year  ending  August  31,  1916.  The  supplies  purchased 
by  the  members  through  this  organization  include  box 


66  Rural  Organization 

shocks,  labels,  tissue  wraps,  spray  materials,  fertilizers, 
and  other  packing-house  and  orchard  supplies. 

The  California  Almond  Growers'  Exchange  consists 
of  a  number  of  local  non-stock  associations  with  a 
membership  fee  ranging  from  $1.00  to  $2.50.  The 
local  associations  are  formed  in  communities  where 
sufficient  almonds  are  grown  to  make  this  advisable, 
and  the  associations  thus  formed  affiliate  with  the  cen- 
tral exchange.  By  special  arrangements,  growers  in 
districts  where  there  are  no  local  associations  may  mar- 
ket through  the  exchange.  A  contract  date  is  set  after 
which  no  growers'  tonnage  will  be  accepted  for  sale. 
In  this  way  a  fairly  accurate  estimate  of  the  prospec- 
tive crop  is  secured  which  enables  the  sales  department 
of  the  exchange  to  make  arrangements  for  placing  the 
crop. 

The  Delta  Creamery  Company  (California)  was 
formed  in  1910.  Its  membership  is  composed  of  dairy- 
men and  the  business  is  operated  for  their  mutual  bene- 
fit. The  returns  from  products  handled  by  the  com- 
pany have  been  much  more  satisfactory  than  those  re- 
ceived when  the  members  marketed  them  individually. 

The  creamery  has  established  a  wholesale  house  in 
San  Diego  and  at  present  about  one-third  of  its  out- 
put is  marketed  through  this  outlet  with  good  results. 
It  is  planned  to  extend  this  method  of  selling  so  that 
the  entire  output  can  be  sold  in  this  way.  The  manager 
states  that  he  believes  the  creamery  owes  its  success 


Marketing  67 

in  a  large  measure  to  its  efficient  employees  and  to 
the  businesslike  methods  used  in  conducting  the  opera- 
tions. 

The  Florida  Citrus  Exchange  is  a  cooperative  non- 
stock association  which  was  formed  on  account  of  un- 
satisfactory conditions  surrounding  the  marketing  of 
the  citrus  fruit  of  Florida.  Before  this  organization 
was  formed,  each  grower  attended  to  the  marketing 
of  his  own  fruit  and,  as  a  consequence,  proper  super- 
vision was  lacking  and  sufficient  attention  was  not  given 
to  grading  and  packing.  Most  of  the  packing  was 
done  in  sheds,  barns,  and  similar  places,  and  little  at- 
tention was  given  to  the  appearance  of  the  fruit.  Dur- 
ing a  period  of  six  years  a  number  of  packing  houses 
were  built,  and  at  present  the  Florida  Citrus  Exchange 
with  its  allied  membership  has  about  $600,000  in- 
vested in  such  plants.  An  idea  of  the  growth  of  the 
exchange  is  obtained  from  the  statement  that  about 
700,000  boxes  of  fruit  were  handled  during  its  sec- 
ond year,  while  in  1915  it  handled  over  2,000,000 
boxes.  At  first  the  loss  on  account  of  decay  was  large, 
but  because  of  improved  methods  this  loss  has  been 
greatly  reduced,  until  at  the  present  time  it  is  com- 
paratively small. 

The  exchange  has  been  instrumental  in  securing  new 
markets  for  Florida  fruit.  In  the  early  days  of  the 
organization,  fruit  was  shipped  to  but  18  or  20  mar- 
kets, while  at  the  present  time  there  are  approximately 
135  agencies  throughout  the  United  States  and  Can- 


68  Rural  Organization 

ada  which  handle  the  output.  During  the  last  four 
years  $250,000  has  been  spent  in  advertising  the 
brands  of  the  exchange.  It  is  considered  that  this 
money  has  been  well  spent,  as  a  reputation  has  been 
built  up  by  proper  grading  and  standardization  which 
has  been  brought  to  the  attention  of  many  dealers  and 
consumers,  thus  increasing  the  demand  and  resulting 
in  greater  consumption  and  better  distribution. 

The  Florida  Citrus  Exchange  consists  of  four  divi- 
sions: First,  the  individual  growers;  second,  the  local 
associations  made  up  of  individual  growers ;  third,  the 
subexchanges,  made  up  of  local  associations;  fourth, 
the  central  exchange  made  up  of  the  subexchanges. 
The  growers  are  the  producers  and  the  owners  of  the 
entire  business.  The  local  associations  look  after  the 
picking,  hauling,  packing,  and  loading  of  the  fruit  be- 
longing to  its  members.  The  subexchanges  act  as  for- 
warding agents  for  the  associations.  The  central  ex- 
change takes  care  of  the  selling,  collecting,  advertis- 
ing, and  kindred  matters. 

The  Ozark  Fruit  Growers'  Association  is  found  in 
southern  Missouri  and  northern  Arkansas.  The  prin- 
cipal products  marketed  are  strawberries  and  peaches. 
The  organization  consists  of  a  central  association  which 
markets  the  fruit  of  a  number  of  local  associations  affil- 
iated with  it.  The  secretary  reports  that  there  are  500 
members,  that  the  capital  stock  is  $2000,  divided  into 
shares  of  $1.00  each,  no  member  owning  more  than 
10  shares.  Several  hundred  carloads  of  strawberries 


Marketing  69 

and  peaches  are  marketed  annually.  The  total  business 
transacted  in  1915  amounted  to  approximately 
$600,000. 

This  association  has  been  successful  in  standardiz- 
ing its  products  and  making  its  brand  known  to  the 
trade.  A  new  venture  recently  undertaken  is  the  use 
of  various  trade  papers  in  advising  the  trade  generally 
of  the  association's  output  through  advertisements  car- 
ried during  the  marketing  season.  Marketing  condi- 
tions and  returns  to  growers  have  been  much  more  sat- 
isfactory since  the  creation  of  this  sales  agency.  As  in 
the  case  of  most  successful  fruit  associations,  better 
distribution  has  been  obtained,  together  with  a  stand- 
ardization of  output  and  sales  methods. 

Cooperative  Live-Stock  Shipping  Association  * 

The  cooperative  shipping  of  live  stock  has  been 
found  practicable  and  profitable  in  sections  where  live- 
stock production  is  a  side  line  in  connection  with  gen- 
eral or  specialized  systems  of  farming. 

A  cooperative  live-stock  shipping  association  re- 
quires only  a  simple  form  of  organization.  A  small 
membership  fee  is  charged  and  a  specified  rate  per 
hundredweight  or  car  is  deducted  from  the  returns  on 
each  shipment  to  cover  the  manager's  commission  and 
the  running  expenses  and  to  provide  for  a  sinking 
fund.  The  principal  requisites  for  success  are  a  com- 

*  Farmers'  Bulletin  718,  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  by  S.  W.  Doty  and  L.  D.  Hall. 


70  Rural  Organisation 

petent  manager  and  loyalty  on  the  part  of  the  mem- 
bers. 

Members  should  bring  their  stock  to  the  shipping 
point  on  the  designated  shipping  day.  Only  carload 
lots  should  be  sent  to  market.  All  stock  should  be 
marked.  This  makes  it  possible  to  allot  to  each  mem- 
ber his  proper  share  of  the  total  shrinkage  and  dock- 
ages and  to  make  proper  adjustments  in  case  of  loss 
or  damage  in  transit. 

The  manager  should  prorate  the  receipts,  expendi- 
tures, and  shrinkage  for  each  shipment.  His  knowl- 
edge of  each  shipper's  stock  and  his  records  made  on 
shipping  day  enable  him  to  adjust  individual  accounts 
equitably. 

Whenever  cooperative  live-stock  shipping  associa- 
tions have  been  formed  an  appreciable  saving  to  the 
farmer  has  resulted.  Moreover,  the  activities  of  a 
competent  manager  and  the  influence  of  a  successful 
association  make  for  a  general  improvement  in  methods 
of  marketing  and  a  better  knowledge  of  market  prices 
and  conditions  among  the  farmers  of  the  community. 

The  Cooperative  Elei'ator  and  Mill 

Throughout  the  wheat  belt,  cooperative  elevators 
have  proven  successful.  The  addition  of  the  co- 
operative mill  is  a  somewhat  later  development,  but 
is  rapidly  gaining  favor.  Such  an  organized  activity 
at  Wamego,  Kansas,  is  typical  of  the  success  which 
attends  this  type  of  community  enterprise  when  prop- 


Marketing  71 

erly  conducted.  A  report  of  the  organization  of  this 
enterprise  (quoted  from  Mail  and  Breeze,  Topeka, 
Kansas)  states  that: 

"When  the  formation  of  the  company  was  first  be- 
gun, the  'can't  be  done'  sentiment  was  strong.  The 
doubters  had  to  be  shown — and  were.  Starting  out  to 
take  subscriptions  at  midnight,  after  an  evening's  dis- 
cussion of  the  undertaking,  the  supporters  of  the  proj- 
ect sold  stock  amounting  to  $60,000  by  six  o'clock  the 
next  evening.  The  concern  is  chartered  for  $100,000, 
and  240  stockholders  own  $65,000  of  the  stock.  Only 
Farmers'  Union  members  may  own  stock,  and  each 
stockholder  has  only  one  vote,  no  matter  how  large 
his  holding. 

"The  mill  company  purchased  the  mill  and  elevator 
then  in  operation  in  Wamego  and  started  active  work 
July,  1919.  The  mill  has  an  excellent  business  both 
in  Kansas  and  in  the  East.  Wheat  is  bought  only  for 
milling  purposes,  while  corn  and  oats  are  purchased 
in  Kansas  City  and  shipped  direct  to  small  buyers  for 
whom  the  mill  has  obtained  the  shipment,  operating 
on  a  brokerage  basis.  The  mill  itself  has  a  capacity 
of  more  than  200  barrels  of  flour  daily,  and  the  stor- 
age capacity  is  75,000  bushels. 

"We  are  operating  this  mill  on  a  strictly  business 
basis,"  the  manager  declares,  "with  the  intention  of 
making  all  the  honest  profit  we  can.  We  do  business 
with  any  individual  or  concern,  supplying  products  to 
all  Wamego  stores  and  shipping  much  stuff  to  other 
cooperative  associations." 


72  Rural  Organisation 

Community  Egg  Circle  * 

The  first  "egg  circle"  reported  in  Kansas  was  or- 
ganized in  Lyon  County.  This  organization  has 
very  appropriately  been  named  the  "Quality  Egg  Com- 
pany." It  is,  in  fact,  a  federation  of  egg  circles,  one  in 
every  neighborhood  that  wishes  it,  with  headquarters 
and  a  central  organization  at  Emporia.  Every  circle 
has  its  own  officers — a  president,  vice-president,  and 
secretary-treasurer. 

The  egg  circle  is  one  of  the  latest  products  of  the 
movement  for  more  effective  rural  cooperation.  Its 
great  advantage  lies  in  solving  the  marketing  problem. 
Strict  rules  are  laid  down  as  to  gathering  and  caring 
for  the  eggs,  so  strict,  in  fact,  that  one  is  inclined  to 
be  skeptical  as  to  whether  they  will  be  observed,  re- 
membering the  conditions  under  which  eggs  are  pro- 
duced and  marketed  on  the  average  farm. 

But  in  the  Quality  Egg  Company  a  breach  of  the 
rules  is  punishable  by  the  loss  of  the  offender's  mem- 
bership, which  means  that  the  stamp  with  which  the 
eggs  are  marked  must  be  turned  in.  The  rules  specify 
that  all  eggs  must  be  gathered  at  least  once  a  day,  and 
twice  on  very  cold  or  very  warm  days.  They  must  be 
kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  and  marketed  at  least  twice 
a  week.  Only  strictly  fresh  eggs  are  to  be  sent.  Every 
member  agrees  to  pen  up  or  otherwise  dispose  of  all 
male  birds  from  June  15  to  September  1. 

*  Farmers'  Mail  and  Breeze,  Topeka. 


Marketing  73 

By  means  of  the  stamp,  every  egg  can  be  traced 
back  to  the  farm  from  which  it  came,  making  it  a 
simple  thing  to  place  the  blame  for  bad  eggs.  Every 
circle  in  the  federation  is  designated  by  a  letter — A, 
B,  C,  D,  etc.,  as  far  down  the  alphabet  as  there  are 
circles.  Members  in  the  circles  are  numbered  and  every 
member's  stamp  bears  the  circle  letter  and  individual's 
number.  This  stamp  is  placed  on  the  large  end  of 
every  egg  before  it  is  marketed.  Thus,  an  egg  stamped 
"A-22"  signifies  that  it  came  from  Member  No.  22  in 
Circle  A.  Reference  to  the  secretary's  books  completes 
the  identification.  The  stamp  costs  a  member  35  cents, 
and  membership  dues  are  25  cents,  which  constitutes 
all  the  expense  there  is  connected  with  becoming  a 
member. 

All  eggs  are  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  one  cent  a  dozen 
above  the  prices  paid  by  Emporia  commission  houses. 
At  the  end  of  every  month  accounts  are  squared  and 
the  balance  accumulated  as  profits  is  prorated  to  each 
member  according  to  the  quantity  of  eggs  he  or  she 
has  marketed. 

All  eggs  sold  by  members  are  graded.  Grade  No.  1 
consists  of  clean  eggs  of  a  uniform  color,  well  packed 
in  neat  cases  or  cartons,  and  weighing  not  less  than 
24  ounces  to  the  dozen.  Grade  No.  2  includes  clean 
eggs,  neatly  packed,  and  weighing  not  less  than  21 
ounces  to  the  dozen. 

Every  case  of  eggs  sent  out  by  the  company  bears 
the  name  "Quality  Egg  Company"  conspicuously  let- 
tered upon  it,  and  also  contains  other  advertising  litera- 


74  Rural  Organization 

ture.  By  this  means  and  by  keeping  up  a  high  quality 
of  product  it  is  hoped  that  a  widespread  reputation 
for  these  eggs  will  be  built  up.  Even  now  good  mar- 
kets do  not  seem  to  be  lacking,  as  one  Kansas  City 
concern  recently  applied  for  50  cases  of  eggs  a  day. 
The  company  has  also  received  many  requests  from 
hotels,  restaurants  and  packing  houses.  One  of  the 
buyers  has  been  the  Harvey  eating  houses  system  of 
the  Santa  Fe  railway. 

The  Country  Market 

The  Welborn  Community  Market  has  been  open  on 
the  evening  of  each  summer  day,  since  June  13,  1917. 
Welborn  is  about  thirteen  miles  from  Kansas  City, 
and  the  market  serves  the  purpose  of  selling  country 
produce  from  a  rural  community  directly  to  the  con- 
sumer. Kansas  City  people  drive  out  in  their  cars 
and  lay  in  the  next  day's  supply.  The  manager  reports 
as  follows: 

"The  first  night  only  four  wagons  came  to  market 
but  there  were  so  many  buyers  came  out  from  the  city 
that  more  growers  came  to  try  out  the  new  scheme, 
until  August,  1918,  we  had  over  800  during  the 
month.  Perishable  fruit  put  in  an  ice  box  the  day  it 
is  gathered  will  stay  in  good  condition  three  or  four 
days,  but  if  it  gets  warm  the  next  day  it  will  nearly 
always  mold  by  the  time  it  gets  cold  in  an  ice  box. 
Sweet  corn  gathered  in  large  wagons  will  heat  in  eight 
hours  and  little  of  it  gets  to  a  morning  market  that 


Marketing  75 

has  not  been  heated,  which  causes  it  to  become  hard 
and  seem  too  ripe  when  it  may  have  been  pulled  soft 
and  tender. 

"We  hope  to  be  able  to  establish  a  standard  of  qual- 
ity and  a  standard  of  quantity,  as  mills,  canneries, 
packing  houses  and  other  industries  have.  We  know 
by  the  brand  or  grade  what  we  buy  in  other  com- 
modities— why  not  in  farm  products? 

"We  have  almost  an  acre  of  ground  and  have  or- 
ganized under  the  laws  of  the  state  of  Kansas  with 
a  capital  of  $5000.  The  shares  are  $25  each,  which 
is  small  enough  to  allow  any  one  to  become  a  mem- 
ber. Under  our  charter  we  may  handle  baskets,  crates, 
seeds,  tools,  etc.  We  like  to  have  every  one  interested 
in  the  market  to  report  far  enough  ahead  what  they 
have  for  sale  that  it  can  be  intelligently  advertised." 

The  Community  Market 

Finding  the  tendency  of  farmers  to  organize  for 
the  purpose  of  marketing  their  products  in  bulk,  and 
wishing  to  render  that  service  for  them,  the  merchants 
of  certain  town  centers  have  found  a  way  to  be  a  part 
of  this  agricultural  marketing  business.  A  striking  ex- 
ample of  this  attempt  is  to  be  found  at  Stillwater,  Min- 
nesota. 

We  quote  the  following  from  their  Market  News, 
May,  1917: 

"The  Stillwater  Market  Company,  formerly  known 
as  the  Stillwater  Equity  Market  Company,  is  a  cor- 


76  Rural  Organization 

poration  made  up  of  business  men  and  farmers,  num- 
bering about  250  members,  incorporated  some  eight 
years  ago,  under  the  laws  of  Minnesota.  While  it  as- 
sures its  stockholders  6  per  cent,  the  main  object  of 
the  organization  is  at  all  times  to  have  a  market  for 
the  products  of  the  different  producers  of  Washington 
County,  and  that  part  of  St.  Croix  County  which  is 
adjacent  to  Stillwater. 

"Three  years  ago  the  Civic  Club  of  Stillwater  saw 
that  there  was  one  thing  needed  with  the  market,  which 
at  that  time  was  limited  to  the  purchase  of  grain,  hay 
and  straw,  and  that  was  to  have  a  place  that  would 
purchase  produce  at  all  times. 

"A  committee  set  about  looking  up  the  feasibility 
of  such  a  place,  and  on  the  first  day  of  July,  1914, 
they  inaugurated  the  Produce  and  Dairy  Department 
of  the  Stillwater  Market  Company,  agreeing  to  reim- 
burse the  company  any  deficit  up  to  $2400  that  might 
be  incurred  during  the  first  year  of  business  of  said 
department. 

"The  object  of  this  department — and  this  object  has 
been  practically  carried  out — is  that  the  producer  should 
be  paid  a  full  market  price  for  his  product,  minus  just 
enough  margin  to  carry  on  the  overhead  expenses.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  department  showed  at  the  end 
of  the  first  year  a  deficit  of  $400,  which  was  duly  paid 
by  the  Civic  Club,  and  since  that  time  has  made  its 
own  expenses,  being  assisted  by  the  main  company  only. 

"It  might  be  here  mentioned  that  quite  a  few  pro- 
ducers overlook  the  main  object  of  our  market.  Of 


Marketing  77 

course  we  are  glad  to  receive  as  much  of  the  farm 
product  as  we  possibly  can.  However,  that  is  not  the 
real  main  object  of  our  establishment.  We  act  some- 
thing like  a  clearing  house.  We  wish  to  cooperate  in 
the  marketing  of  the  producers'  products,  whether  he 
sells  us  his  holdings  or  not.  We  try  to  make  a  study 
of  the  different  markets  throughout  the  entire  coun- 
try, and  at  any  time  any  one  wishes  to  receive  any 
information  regarding  the  marketing  of  his  product  we 
will  cheerfully  give  him  all  the  information  that  we 
know  and,  as  above  stated,  whether  he  sells  us  the 
product  or  not.  Our  telephone  is  busy  almost  all  the 
time  answering  different  questions,  and  if  our  ques- 
tions get  to  be  too  many,  we  will  gladly  install  another 
telephone. 

"For  example,  if  you  should  happen  to  have  some 
product,  regardless  of  how  little  or  how  large,  you 
can  be  benefited  if  you  will  only  call  the  market  be- 
fore you  have  engaged  said  product  some  other  place. 
Of  course  we  do  not  profess  to  be  able  to  pay  you  at 
all  times  more  than  other  dealers  who  are  dealing  in 
the  produce  line.  Sometimes  we  can  pay  more,  and 
there  are  other  times  we  have  to  pay  less;  yet,  if  you 
call  us  up  before  trying  to  sell  your  product,  you  will 
have  a  price  to  go  upon. 

"After  you  have  gotten  our  price,  then  if  some  one 
offers  you  more,  you  of  course  can  use  your  judg- 
ment in  accepting  his  offer.  Our  prices  are  not  taken 
from  one  place;  they  are  gotten  from  all  over  the 
country — from  Chicago,  Minneapolis,  Duluth,  Omaha, 


78  Rural  Organisation 

St.  Paul  and  different  places.  We  are  shipping  all  the 
time,  and  we  have  had  our  products  go  east  as  far  as 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  as  far  south  as  Oklahoma,  and  as 
far  west  as  the  state  of  Washington.  So  you  can 
readily  see  that  we  are  not  making  a  market  on  the 
local  conditions  at  all.  You  will  find  that  quite  often 
our  local  grocerymen  and  butchers  pay  more  for  a  cer- 
tain product  than  we  do.  This  is  brought  about  by  a 
better  demand  right  here  for  that  particular  article  than 
there  is  abroad.  And  it  is  our  aim  that  the  people  of 
Stillwater  are  served  first,  providing,  of  course,  that 
they  are  willing  to  pay  as  much  for  the  product,  on  a 
comparative  basis,  as  we  can  receive  from  other 
sources. 

"The  Stillwater  Market  Company  is  a  larger  insti- 
tution than  a  great  many  people  think  it  is.  You  are 
not,  perhaps,  aware  that  the  two  departments  together, 
during  the  year  1916,  did  a  business  amounting  to 
over  $150,000.  And  please  bear  in  mind  that  we 
handle  quite  a  lot  of  farm  products,  which  do  not  run 
into  large  amounts  of  money,  such  as  hay  and  straw, 
apples,  rutabagas,  etc. 

"We  will  not  place  potatoes  on  that  list,  for  a  part 
of  the  year  1916  that  product  ran  into  quite  a  sum 
of  money.  The  reader  is  perhaps  not  aware  that,  on 
an  average,  there  is  shipped  through  this  market  nearly 
one  and  a  half  cars  of  farm  products  every  day  of 
the  year. 

"You  perhaps  are  not  aware  that  Stillwater,  up  to  a 


Marketing  79 

very  short  time  ago,  had  the  only  market  of  its  kind 
in  the  entire  U.  S.  A. 

"You  are  perhaps  not  aware  that  on  an  average  the 
prices  you  receive  for  your  products  at  this  market, 
and  here  in  Stillwater,  are  from  2  to  8  per  cent  on  an 
average  more  than  any  other  country  town  can  boast 
of  in  the  entire  state  of  Minnesota." 


Cooperative  Motor  Truck  Route  * 

The  operation  of  a  motor  truck  route  by  a  coopera- 
tive association  is  illustrated  by  "The  Farmers'  Co- 
operative Company  of  Harford  County,  Incorporated." 
This  association  appears  to  have  met  the  needs 
of  the  rural  community  it  is  serving  in  a  very 
satisfactory  manner,  and  at  the  same  time  has  elim- 
inated effectively  the  problems  of  profit  and  destructive 
competition.  This  method  is  a  decided  departure  from 
usually  prevailing  methods  of  operating  motor  truck 
routes. 

The  association  operates  in  Harford  County,  Mary- 
land. Its  motor  trucks  offer  a  daily  round-trip  service 
from  Churchville  and  Bel  Air  to  Baltimore,  taking 
milk  and  other  farm  products  to  Baltimore  and  bring- 
ing back  to  the  farmers  feedstuff's,  salt,  seeds,  fertiliz- 
ers, farm  imjtlements,  and  other  articles  for  use  on  the 
farm,  together  with  merchandise  shipped  from  the 

*  Farmers'  Bulletin  1032,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, by  H.  S.  Yohe. 


80  Rural  Organization 

wholesale  houses  of  Baltimore  to  rural  merchants  who 
are  members  of  the  association.  The  distance  covered 
daily  is  about  60  miles. 

The  territory  served  by  the  association  is  a  very  pro- 
ductive agricultural  region.  Many  of  the  farmers  pro- 
duce milk  which  is  shipped  to  Baltimore,  some  raise 
truck  crops,  and  the  remainder  practice  general  farm- 
ing. That  section  of  Harford  County  in  which  the  as- 
sociation operates  has  but  one  railroad. 

Prior  to  the  appearance  of  the  commercial  motor 
truck,  the  farmer  hauled  his  products  by  team,  either 
to  the  railroad  station  or  to  Baltimore.  Except  to  the 
farmers  near  the  railroad,  hauling  to  shipping  points 
meant  the  loss  of  the  use  of  a  team  and  man  for  at 
least  half  a  day.  To  the  farmers  producing  milk  who 
had  to  make  this  trip  daily,  this  loss  was  appreciable. 
As  the  trip  to  Baltimore  was  hard  on  teams  and  always 
required  at  least  two  days'  time,  few  farmers  mar- 
keted in  this  manner. 

A  few  years  ago,  some  of  the  farmers  engaged  in 
large  operations  purchased  small  motor  trucks  to  meet 
their  own  needs.  But  such  an  investment  was  usually 
so  disproportionate  to  the  returns  earned  that  com- 
paratively few  farmers  felt  that  their  operations  would 
warrant  the  expenditure.  Commission  merchants  in 
Baltimore  who  owned  trucks  began  about  this  time 
to  make  occasional  runs  into  the  district  at  certain  sea- 
sons. This  service  was  irregular  and  not  dependable, 
and  the  usual  result  was  that  the  farmer  did  not  get 
the  price  he  should  have  received  for  his  products. 


Marketing  8 1 

About  the  same  time  a  motor  truck  owner  offered 
to  carry  milk  to  Baltimore  and  bring  back  such  com- 
modities as  might  be  needed  by  the  farmers  and  rural 
merchants.  As  the  farmers  were  only  required  to  place 
their  milk  on  the  main  highway,  the  hauls  from  their 
farms  to  the  highway  were  negligible  when  compared 
with  the  hauls  to  the  railroad  shipping  points.  This 
service  to  the  milk  producers  was  satisfactory  for  sev- 
eral years,  but  with  increased  cost  of  labor  and  mate- 
rials for  repairs  the  operator  felt  obliged  to  increase 
rates  more  than  the  farmers  felt  to  be  justified. 

When  the  new  rates  were  put  into  effect,  a  few  of 
the  leading  farmers  and  merchants  of  Bel  Air  and 
Churchville  determined  to  organize  a  cooperative  asso- 
ciation to  furnish  reliable  transportation  at  reasonable 
rates  to  its  members.  A  canvass  among  farmers  and 
rural  merchants  was  made  for  the  purpose  of  learning 
the  sentiment  toward  the  formation  of  an  association 
and  of  ascertaining  how  much  freight  each  member  of 
the  proposed  association  would  have  moving  into  and 
from  Baltimore.  The  canvass  showed  that  a  sufficient 
number  of  patrons  could  be  secured  and  that  there 
would  be  sufficient  tonnage  moving  in  both  directions 
to  warrant  the  operation  of  one  truck  of  about  four 
tons  capacity.  Steps  then  were  taken  to  effect  a  per- 
manent organization  on  a  business  basis. 

The  Harford  County  Association,  at  the  outset,  was 
able  to  establish  a  rate  lower  than  that  charged  by  the 
private  operator  before  making  the  increase  which 
brought  about  the  formation  of  the  association.  This 


82  Rural  Organisation 

could  be  accomplished  because  the  association  does  not 
plan  to  make  a  profit,  but  gives  to  its  members  in  the 
form  of  lower  rates  the  profits  which  flow  from  the 
business  which  they  contribute. 

As  compared  with  the  service  rendered  by  the  rail- 
road, the  benefits  are  very  marked.  Rates  on  many 
commodities  are  decidedly  lower.  In  addition  the  con- 
gestion and  embargoes  of  the  past  year  would  have 
greatly  inconvenienced  the  farmers  and  rural  merchants 
if  they  had  been  forced  to  depend  on  the  railroad.  Not 
only  does  the  association  afford  a  cheaper  and  more 
convenient  service  to  milk  shippers,  but  they  seldom 
lose  any  milk  cans.  Milk  shipments  made  by  rail  re- 
sulted in  the  loss  of  many  cans  each  year. 

Shipping  by  motor  trucks  has  saved  much  valuable 
time  for  association  members.  Previously  they  were 
obliged  to  take  milk  shipments  to  the  railroad  shipping 
points.  Except  for  those  more  favorably  located,  this 
usually  meant  the  loss  of  the  service  of  a  man  and 
team  two  to  five  hours  every  day.  At  present  the  asso- 
ciation trucks  pass  the  doors  of  many  of  the  farmers 
each  day  and  pick  up  their  milk  and  produce.  Those 
living  back  from  the  main  highway  bring  their  prod- 
ucts to  the  highway  only.  This  saves  considerable 
time.  With  the  present  shortage  of  labor  such  service 
means  much  to  the  busy  farmer,  and  even  under  nor- 
mal conditions  it  is  a  real  economy.  One  farmer  voiced 
the  appreciation  of  the  milk  producers  generally  by 
stating  that  they  would  rather  pay  from  %  to  1  cent 
more  per  gallon  for  the  present  service  than  to  return 


Marketing  83 

to  former  conditions.  Another  dairyman  stated  that 
with  the  present  difficulty  in  securing  competent  help, 
he  would  be  forced  to  discontinue  his  business  if  it 
were  not  that  the  association  trucks  relieved  him  of  the 
daily  haul  to  the  depot. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why   must  organization    for   marketing  necessarily   follow 

organization  for  production? 

2.  How  do  conditions  differ  to-day,  as  compared  with  former 

times,  making  marketing  organizations  more  necessary? 

3.  What  is  the  advantage  of  a  survey,  before  launching  a  co- 

operative marketing  association? 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  community  becoming  noted 

for  producing  and  marketing  a  major  product? 

5.  What  producers  have  been  the  first  class  to  "be  driven  to 

a  system  of   cooperative  marketing"? 

6.  What  does  the  work  of  a  marketing  association  include? 

7.  What  are  some  outstanding  features  of  fruit  marketing  as- 

sociations?   Of  live  stock  shipping  associations?    Of  other 
marketing  organizations  ? 

RESEARCH  PROBLEMS 

1.  What   local  products   are   marketed  outside   of  this   com- 

munity? 

2.  Where  are  these  products  sold? 

3.  What  local  independent  marketing  agencies  are  there? 

4.  Do  the  local  marketing  agents  deal  justly? 

5.  What  marketing  organizations  exist  locally?     Are  they  co- 

operative associations  or  stock  companies?    Are  they  suc- 
cessful?   How  could  they  be  improved? 

6.  Could  local  products  advantageously  find  some  other  market? 

7.  Could  the  marketing  of  certain  special  products  be  improved? 


CHAPTER  III 

SECURING   SUPPLIES 

Community  Responsibility 

THE  successful  continuation  of  the  production  and 
marketing  functions  depends  upon  adequate  provisions 
for  securing  supplies.  Farm  machinery,  building  mate- 
rials, commercial  fertilizers,  household  supplies,  and 
such  stock  feed  as  is  not  locally  produced,  must  be 
kept  coming  into  the  community  in  a  constant  flow. 
Any  shortage,  or  any  excessive  price,  of  these  mate- 
rials may  seriously  cripple  the  community. 

This  business  of  properly  supplying  the  people  with 
the  things  which  they  need  has  also  in  the  past  often 
been  left  to  the  hit  or  miss  action  of  individuals,  rather 
than  based  upon  a  careful  study  of  needs  and  made  a 
regular  community  function.  This__bringS-.us  to  .the 
consideration  of  the  problem  of  retail  distribution  as 
it  applies  to  an  agriculturalcommumty. 

It  is  necessary,  since  this  is  within  the  scope  of  eco- 
nomics, to  lay  aside  all  sentiment,  and  especially  all 
acrimonious  feeling,  and  consider  securing  supplies  as 
a  community  function.  The  question  becomes  this : 
"How  can  this  agricultural  community  best  supply  it- 
self with  those  necessities  which  must  be  brought  in 

84 


Securing  Supplies  85 

from  the  outside?"  It  must  be  understood  that  the 
ability  of  an  agricultural  community  to  pay  for  cul- 
tural things  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  money 
which  it  secures  for  what  it  sells  outside  of  the  com- 
munity, minus  the  amount  of  money  which  it  pays  for 
what  it  buys  from  outside  the  community.  It  is  on 
the  balance  of  money  in  the  community  as  the  result 
of  these  functions  that  we  support  schools,  churches, 
and  recreation.  Success  in  this  regard  will  then  require 
that  the  community  shall  so  produce  and  market  as  to 
bring  in  the  largest  possible  amount  of  money  in  ex- 
change for  the  product,  and  so  buy  as  to  send  out  the 
smallest  possible  amount  of  money  for  the  things  that 
are  necessary  to  keep  up  the  economic  process  prop- 
erly. From  this  standpoint  it  becomes  a  civic  duty  of 
the  local  people  to  eliminate  any  wasteful  processes  of 
distributing  supplies. 

Place  of  Cooperative  Organisation 

We  need  to  guard  here  against  any  method  offered 
as  a  panacea.  Merely  to  declare  that  we  "must  get  rid 
of  the  middlemen"  is  to  get  nowhere,  and  to  awaken 
personal  animosities  which  are  not  easily  quieted.  An 
agitator  who  does  not  live  among  us  may  be  applauded 
for  his  tirade  against  the  "thieving  middleman" — but 
after  he  leaves  and  the  local  war  which  he  has  started 
continues  for  a  little  while,  it  is  discovered  that  in  the 
average  American  community  the  "middleman"  is  the 
husband  of  the  farmer's  daughter,  or  the  father  of  the 


86  Rural  Organisation 

farmer's  wife;  that  he  attends  with  the  farmer  the 
same  church,  lodge,  and  social  functions.  Il_is_lhere- 
f^r^_hfMtfr_ln  sp^ak  nf  Hirqinating  unnecj 
processes,  or  of  reorganizing  rural  trade  on  an 
>asts~for  Jhe  purpose  ot  permitting  the_jcQjnmiinity  to 
perform  properly  its  functionj>f  securing  supplies. 

A  careful  study  of  rural  trade  will  convince  those 
who  buy  and  those  who  sell  that  a  certain  percentage 
of  it  frequently  can  best  be  carried  on  through  coopera- 
tive organization.  How  large  a  percentage  this  is,  and 
in  what  lines,  must  be  determined  by  careful  study  of 
each  situation.  It  seems  clear  that  cooperative  organ- 
ization is  to  be  encouraged  where  that  method  will  se- 
cure a  maximum  of  satisfactory  service  at  a  minimum 
of  expense  per  unit,  and  discouraged  where  it  will  not 
attain  that  end.  In  this  connection  there  must  be  taken 
into  consideration  the  value  of  the  time  and  energy 
which  the  farmer  expends  in  the  cooperative  purchas- 
ing activity,  and  whether  or  not  it  would  pay  him  bet- 
ter to  expend  that  time  and  energy  in  some  other 
activity. 

Convenient  Combination  of  Cooperative  Marketing 
and  Buying 

Experiments  have  shown  that  in  very  many  cases 
it  pays  the  producers  to  market  their  product  coopera- 
tively. This  marketing  process  calls  for  certain  facili- 
ties, such  as  transportation  vehicles,  elevators,  ware- 


Securing  Supplies  87 

houses,  and  railway  sidetrack.  It  also  calls  for  an 
employed  manager.  It  frequently  is  found  that  where, 
in  the  purchasing  of  supplies,  use  can  be  made  of  this 
equipment  already  assembled  and  the  manager  already 
employed,  without  in  any  way  detracting  from  their 
marketing  activities,  a  considerable  saving  can  be  made 
by  cooperative  purchasing.  Given  this  equipment  in  a 
community,  whatever  can  be  shipped  in  carload  quan- 
tities, run  upon  the  sidetrack  owned  by  the  coopera- 
tive association,  stored  in  their  elevator  or  warehouse, 
and  hauled  by  the  farmers  themselves  in  their  own 
wagons  and  trucks  in  adequate  loads,  should  register 
a  great  saving  to  the  finances  of  the  community.  The 
cooperative  purchasing  of  oil  meal  and  other  feedstuffs, 
coal,  fertilizer,  flour,  salt,  etc.,  which  the  farmers  must 
in  any  case  haul  out  to  the  farms  in  their  own  trucks 
or  wagons,  may  well  be  attended  to  by  the  coopera- 
tive organization.  When  purchased  by  the  individual 
from  the  individual,  the  final  price  to  the  consumer 
must  have  counted  into  it  the  overhead  expense  of  the 
business.  The  farmers,  through  their  cooperative  asso- 
ciation, already  are  bearing  this  overhead  expense,  and 
need  not  pay  it  again  to  another  individual  agency. 
Also,  since  the  farmer  must  in  any  case  drive  into  town 
and  load  into  his  own  vehicle  material,  such  as  coal, 
bought  by  the  wagonload,  and  haul  it  to  his  farm,  there 
is  no  reason  why  he  should  pay  some  other  man  or 
agency  a  price  for  having  unloaded  in  turn  the  com- 
modity from  the  car  or  warehouse  and  stored  it  tern- 


88  Rural  Organisation 

porarily  in  the  bin  for  him.  The  farmer  can  get  it 
just  as  well  from  the  car  or  warehouse,  and  save  the 
expense  of  a  service  which  he  does  not  need. 

New  Factors  Involved  in  Cooperative  Store  Project 

Often  the  one  who  is  interested  in  consummating 
community  organizations  for  the  purchasing  of  sup- 
plies makes  use  of  the  data  covering  the  savings  by 
this  sort  of  bulk  buying  through  an  association  already 
equipped  and  manned  for  marketing,  to  get  the  con- 
sumers to  conduct  also  a  cooperative  store.  At  this 
point  some  new  factors  are  to  be  considered.  The  ven- 
ture requires  new  equipment,  store  room,  and  mana- 
gerial service,  aside  from  that  already  used  for  mar- 
keting the  product.  If  conducted  on  any  large  scale, 
a  force  of  clerks  must  be  employed.  The  commodities 
dealt  in  are  usually  purchased  by  the  consumer  in 
small  quantities,  and  must  be  properly  displayed  and 
frequently  handled.  The  store  itself  must  be  kept 
in  good  condition,  and  the  laws  governing  sani- 
tation for  the  sale  of  pure  food  must  be  rigidly 
obeyed.  Much  goods  must  be  kept  in  reserve,  with 
the  uncertainty  of  fluctuations  in  price.  Such  a 
cooperative  venture  comes  into  keen  competition 
with  other  regularly  organized  mercantile  interests. 
All  of  this  causes  an  accumulation  of  expense  for 
added,  service,  and  risk,  and  overhead,  that  makes  the 
cooperative  securing  of  such  supplies  as  are  ordinarily 
purchased  at  a  store  in  small  quantities  an  undertaking 
which  cannot  be  assured  the  same  degree  of  success 


Securing  Supplies  89 

as  commonly  meets  the  cooperative  purchasing  of 
goods  bought  in  large  quantities  through  the  estab- 
lished cooperative  marketing  association. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that  while  in  certain  sections 
European  farmers  on  a  few  acres  of  ground  each  are 
greatly  pleased  with  the  saving  of  a  very  small  amount 
of  money  on  all  their  purchases  for  an  entire  year,  the 
American  farmer,  on  from  a  quarter  section  to  many 
sections  of  land,  with  a  purebred  Hereford  or  Holstein 
herd,  with  a  big  tractor  and  other  power  machinery,  is 
not  satisfied  with  a  purchasing  venture  which  does  not 
make  large  savings.  He  feels  that  his  time  and  money 
invested  in  producing  and  marketing  will  pay  him  bet- 
ter than  will  the  same  amount  of  time  and  money  in- 
vested in  a  retail  business  concern. 

Cooperative  purchasing  should  be  indulged  in  when 
it  pays  the  purchaser,  and  not  otherwise.  If  a  scien- 
tific survey  of  trade  conditions  will  prove  that  any 
sort  of  community  economic  venture  will  permanently 
render  good  results  and  leave  a  larger  balance  of  wealth 
in  the  hands  of  the  producers  than  they  would  other- 
wise have,  then  that  venture  should  be  undertaken. 

Town  and  Country  Cooperation 

In  some  backward  sections  there  is  a  feeling  among 
retail  merchants  that  if  the  community  organizes  to 
purclia.se  its  supplies,  tlTe  towrTcentgr  will  be  injured.^ 


The  fallacy  of  this  statement  is  readily  seen  when 
realiz£jhat  jxHsupplies  not  produced  in  the  community 
must  be  brougfaMn  from  theoutside.;  that  the  only 


90  Rural  Organisation 

money  which  can  bring  them  in  is  the  money  made 
on  that  which  is  produced  in  the  community  and  sent 
outside  to  bring  in  the  money;  that  there  is  absolutely 
no  ethical  or  moral  obligation,  and  certainly  not  an 
economic  one,  with  regard  to  who  sends  the  money 
out  to  get  the  supplies;  and  that,  no  matter  who  han- 
dles the  transactions,  all  supplies  for  the  community 
must  be  brought  to  and  distributed  from  the  town 
center. 

In  the  same  backward  sections  farmers  have  some- 
times been  misled  into  opposing  the  town  center,  for- 
getful of  the  fact  that  the  town  center  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  Cooperative  Elevator  Company,  the 
Live  Stock  Shippers'  Association,  the  fruit-marketing 
association,  the  cream  station,  and  the  cooperative 
store. 

Happily,  in  the  most  intelligent  sections,  farmers 
and  town  people  have  learned  that  they  are  essential 
to  each  other,  and  are  studying  the  trade  conditions 
to  the  end  that  the  entire  community  may  be  economi- 
cally supplied  with  the  necessaries  of  life. 

TYPICAL   ORGANIZATIONS    AND    PROJECTS 

Farmers'  Purchasing  Association  * 

Nearly  all  marketing  associations  carry  on  a  certain 
amount  of  purchasing  also.  Many  of  those  dealt  with 

*  The  Cooperative  Purchase  of  Farm  Supplies,  by  C.  E.  Bassett, 
specialist  in  Cooperative  Organization,  Office  of  Markets  and 
Rural  Organization.  Yearbook  Separate  (United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture)  No.  658,  1915. 


Securing  Supplies  .  91 

under  the  previous  heading  as  organized  for  the  pur- 
pose of  marketing  various  products  have  conducted  a 
considerable  side  business  in  purchasing  coal,  feed,  im- 
plements, etc.  There  are,  however,  special  organized 
plans  exclusively  for  securing  supplies. 

In  the  farmers'  general  plans  for  improving  their 
conditions  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  take  advantage 
of  the  cooperative  principles  for  conducting  their  busi- 
ness, to  the  end  that  they  also  may  be  able  to  elim- 
inate waste.  Efficiency  is  the  watchword,  and  the 
farmer  should  pay  for  necessary  and  efficient  service 
only.  In  case  he  finds  that  he  can  serve  himself  more 
efficiently  than  others  are  serving  him,  if  he  can  install 
and  operate  his  own  business  machinery,  arrange  to 
pay  cash,  or  furnish  his  own  credit,  he  should  do  so. 
The  trade  should,  and  usually  will,  consent  to  meet 
him  on  this  thoroughly  sound  basis. 

If  it  is  good  business  and  entirely  proper  for  manu- 
facturers, wholesalers,  retailers,  to  unite  in  their  respec- 
tive organizations,  not  to  control  prices  or  restrain 
trade,  but  for  greater  business  efficiency  and  to  elim- 
inate waste,  what  argument  should  induce  farmers  to 
refrain  from  similar  action  to  improve  their  business? 
What  can  the  manufacturer  gain  by  such  organization 
which  the  farmer  can  not?  Is  the  average  intelligence 
of  the  manufacturer  less  than  the  average  intelligence 
of  the  American  farmer?  If  it  is  advisable  for  the 
manufacturers  and  dealers  to  federate  into  state  and 
national  associations  for  the  above-named  purposes, 
by  what  line  of  reasoning  do  some  conclude  that  it  is 


92  Rural  Organization 

unnecessary  or  absolutely  improper  for  the  farmers  to 
organize  even  on  a  community  basis? 

The  farmer  is  interested  first  of  all  in  securing  goods 
of  standard  quality.  Large  amounts  of  spraying  and 
fertilizing  chemicals  are  now  used  on  many  farms,  and 
it  is  essential  that  these  materials  be  of  high  grade  and 
free  from  impurities.  The  amount  purchased  by  each 
grower  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  having  chemical 
analyses  made,  but  where  full  carloads  are  purchased 
by  a  group  of  farmers  a  composite  sample  may  be 
taken,  and  one  analysis  will  show  the  average  quality 
of  the  whole. 

Another  effect  of  cooperative  purchasing  has  been 
to  bring  the  farmers  together  in  the  use  of  the  same 
make  of  implements,  fruit  packages,  etc.  One  west- 
ern fruit  association  agreed  on  one  style  of  power 
sprayer  where  a  dozen  or  more  were  formerly  sold. 
Not  only  did  they  save  a  large  sum  on  the  purchase 
price,  but  one  line  of  repairs  now  supplies  their  needs, 
and  parts  can  be  kept  on  hand  for  sale  to  all  members 
at  a  great  saving. 

Another  association  secured  the  adoption  of  one  style 
of  fruit  package  where  no  less  than  eight  had  formerly 
been  in  use.  Manufacturers  who  formerly  had  to  keep 
in  readiness  eight  styles  of  basket  forms  and  eight  kinds 
of  supplies  can  now  devote  their  entire  force  and  fac- 
tory to  the  making  of  one  style,  thus  lessening  the 
cost  of  making  and  decreasing  the  selling  price,  while 
insuring  a  constant  supply. 

The  advantages   to  be  gained  through  a   farmers' 


Securing  Supplies  93 

cooperative  marketing  association  have  been  mentioned 
in  a  previous  yearbook  article,  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  in  all  cases  the  advisability  of  a  cooperative 
organization  depends  upon  the  probability  of  more  effi- 
cient service  being  secured  thereby. 

Persons  with  good  business  experience  should  be 
selected  for  the  officers,  the  secretary  usually  acting  as 
business  manager.  A  board  of  five  or  seven  directors, 
that  number  including  the  executive  officers,  should 
conduct  the  business.  All  persons  who  handle  any 
funds  or  property  should  be  bonded.  A  small  annual 
membership  fee  is  often  advisable  to  provide  for  the 
expenses  of  the  association.  Each  purchaser  may  also 
pay  an  additional  small  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  cost 
of  the  goods  he  orders  to  cover  salary  of  manager, 
postage,  printing,  and  any  other  expenses  connected 
with  the  business.  Paying  the  manager  a  small  per  cent 
on  the  business  handled  encourages  him  to  work  for 
members  and  orders,  but  the  total  amount  paid  him  in 
any  one  season  or  year  should  be  limited  to  a  reason- 
able sum,  based  on  the  character  of  the  business  and 
the  value  of  the  service  rendered.  Unless  a  supply  of 
goods  is  to  be  kept  on  hand,  no  warehouse  or  store 
building  is  needed.  Fertilizers,  spraying  materials, 
packages,  feed,  coal,  and  other  supplies  that  are  bought 
in  carloads  should  be  delivered  direct  from  the  car  to 
save  expenses  and  possible  loss  in  rehandling.  It  must 
be  kept  in  mind  that  the  object  is  to  secure  goods  of 
highest  quality  and  buy  such  goods  at  the  lowest  price 
by  buying  under  contract  in  large  quantities  for  cash. 


94  Rural  Organisation 

While  the  safest  and  most  economical  purchasing 
plan  is  that  of  collective  or  joint  purchasing,  with  de- 
livery direct  from  the  car,  this  enterprise  sometimes 
results  in  the  acquisition  and  use  of  a  warehouse  when 
the  business  grows  large  enough  to  require  it.  Farm- 
ers' clubs  often  make  use  of  an  extra  room  in  their 
hall  for  the  storing  of  repair  parts  and  surplus  stocks 
of  farm  staples.  But  this  plan  of  buying  in  advance 
of  the  farmers'  needs  involves  extra  cost  to  cover  the 
rent  of  a  warehouse,  capital  or  credit  for  buying  goods, 
cartage  from  station,  insurance,  expense  of  salesman 
in  charge,  etc.  Any  association  that  carries  a  large 
stock  of  supplies  on  hand  for  its  members  is  almost 
sure  to  experience  losses  caused  by  a  drop  in  market 
prices,  or,  on  account  of  a  change  in  the  fancies  of 
members,  it  may  have  a  stock  of  some  goods  on  hand 
for  which  there  is  no  demand.  For  example,  when 
arsenate  of  lead  became  popular  as  an  insecticide  one 
association  was  caught  with  a  quantity  of  Paris  green 
on  hand.  The  demand  for  Paris  green  became  so  slight 
in  that  locality  that  the  market  price  dropped,  and  the 
association  suffered  a  severe  loss.  Such  supplies  as  coal, 
salt,  lime,  lumber,  implements,  seed,  flour  and  feed 
often  are  handled  economically  by  farmers'  coopera- 
tive elevators  for  their  members,  but  as  far  as  possible 
delivery  should  be  made  direct  from  the  car. 

Community  Cooperation 

A  merchant  in  a  Kansas  village  has  solved  for  his 
community  a  portion  of  the  problem  of  securing  sup- 


Securing  Supplies  95 

plies,  by  studying  the  farm  supply  business,  and  under- 
taking to  genuinely  serve  the  farm  community  in  all 
of  its  needs.  He  carries  those  goods  that  the  people 
want,  and  that  he  can  afford  to  sell  to  them  at  a  price 
which  will  make  a  saving  to  them  and  a  reasonable 
profit  to  himself.  Goods  for  which  there  is  very  small 
demand  he  helps  his  customers  to  order  from  a  mail- 
order house.  He  is  equipped  to  do  such  a  large  bulk 
of  business  that  his  small  profits  make  him  an  abun- 
dant income  in  the  aggregate.  He  does  this  by  going 
out  after  the  business;  he  runs  a  regular  system  of 
delivery  and  produce  wagons,  rendering  for  the  farmer 
the  double  service  of  hauling  goods  out  to  him  and  of 
hauling  his  produce  to  town  for  him.  For  a  period  of 
years  he  has  rendered  such  splendid  community  service 
by  these  methods  that  when  recently  a  number  of  his 
customers  considered  buying  him  out  and  running  a 
cooperative  store,  after  an  investigation  they  decided 
they  could  not  serve  themselves  as  well  or  as  cheaply 
as  he  was  serving  them,  and  agreed  that  if  he  would 
stay  in  the  business  they  would  stay  out  of  it. 

During  one  year  in  a  small  city  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  Kansas,  the  merchants  organized  to  do  the  co- 
operative bulk  buying  for  the  farmers.  The  business 
was  taken  in  bulk,  through  a  secretary,  cash  on  deliv- 
ery ;  it  was  divided  among  the  merchants ;  hauled  home 
by  the  members  directly  from  the  freight  cars  without 
extra  handling  by  the  merchants;  and  the  merchants 
received  a  fair  commission  on  the  transaction. 

Another  attempt  to  serve  the  rural  consumer  in  his 
desire  to  secure  supplies  is  appearing  in  the  "dollar  a 


96  Rural  Organisation 

month"  store.  The  proprietor  of  this  store  proposes 
to  have  his  books  open  for  inspection  at  all  times;  to 
charge  the  cost  price  on  the  goods,  with  a  definite 
charge  for  overhead,  and  to  charge  each  family  one 
dollar  a  month  for  transacting  the  business. 

Tlie  Cooperative  Store 

A  good  example  of  a  successful  cooperative  store  is 
found  at  Wamego,  Kansas.  Its  organization  was  pre- 
ceded by  a  few  years  of  careful  educational  work,  both 
in  Pottawatomie  and  Wabaunsee  counties,  so  that  the 
farmers  who  led  in  the  movement  had  the  background 
of  cooperative  history  and  principles.*  The  manager 
reports  that  "the  store  account  for  1918  showed  total 
sales  amounting  to  $168,700.  A  5  per  cent  refund 
on  merchandise,  either  for  cash  or  in  trade  by  stock- 
holders, was  made,  after  the  8  per  cent  dividends  de- 
manded by  the  Kansas  lav  had  been  provided  for.  The 
average  overhead  expenses  were  only  9  per  cent  for 
that  year,  while  1 5  per  cent  is  the  average  amount  for 
business  concerns  in  that  line.  The  stockholders  have 
increased  from  338  to  394,  with  little  effort  made 
toward  selling  more  stock." 

Inventory  showed  stock  on  hand,  January  1,  1919, 
valued  at  $55,580.  Sales  up  to  December  1,  1919, 
have  amounted  to  $183,700— an  increase  of  $15,000 
for  11  months  over  the  entire  sales  for  1918.  Prices, 
both  for  farm  produce  and  for  manufactured  com- 

*  Farmers'  Mail  and  Breeze,  Topeka,  Kansas,  December,  1919. 


Securing  Supplies  97 

modities,  have  remained  about  on  a  level  with  other 
stores.  With  a  good  town  trade  already  established 
when  the  union  purchased  the  store,  the  association 
has,  if  anything,  increased  its  hold  upon  town  cus- 
tomers. 

That  most  excellent  business  methods  have  been  em- 
ployed is  shown  by  the  service  given  diners  on  Union 
Pacific  trains,  fresh  butter  and  eggs  sent  to  special  cus- 
tomers in  Kansas  City,  Manhattan  and  other  points, 
and  the  reputation  for  high  class  products  which  has 
been  built  up  to  afford  a  ready  market  for  all  farm 
produce.  An  idea  of  the  immense  volume  of  business 
done  in  farm  produce  may  be  obtained  from  the  fact 
that  in  one  day  $1700  worth  of  eggs  were  bought, 
candled  and  prepared  for  shipment. 

The  manager  of  the  store  claims  approximately  three 
hundred  square  miles  in  his  trade  territory.  He  be- 
lieves that  merchants  in  other  lines  in  the  town  will 
bear  him  out  in  the  statement  that  the  Farmers'  Co- 
operative store  has  been  the  means  of  drawing  trade 
from  an  even  wider  area.  Bank  officials  in  particular 
declare  that  a  difference  in  patronage  could  be  noticed 
immediately  upon  the  establishing  of  the  cooperative 
store.  The  farm  folks  are  also  brought  to  the  town 
more  in  a  social  way  than  was  formerly  the  case. 

The  stock  of  the  store  itself  shows  the  trend  toward 
better  farm  life.  A  line  of  farm  lighting  plants  has 
been  installed,  straw  spreaders  and  all  up-to-date  farm 
machinery  are  in  stock,  and  in  the  store  proper  may  be 
noticed  all  the  well-known  and  reputable  brands  of 


98  Rural  Organisation 

goods.  "We  find  it  advisable  to  handle  the  nationally- 
advertised  goods,"  says  the  manager,  "in  groceries  and 
all  other  lines,  for  customers  are  familiar  with  them 
and  are  certain  of  getting  reliable  commodities.  They 
are  willing  to  pay  more  for  some  brand  of  established 
reputation,  rather  than  take  a  chance  on  something 
they're  not  acquainted  with." 

In  addition  to  the  store  itself,  the  association  oper- 
ates a  cream  station  and  also  ships  live-stock.  The 
cream  station  probably  affords  the  most  favorable  op- 
portunity for  cooperative  endeavor.  During  1918  the 
Farmers'  Cooperative  Association  did  a  business  of 
$45,000,  and  present  records  show  a  steady  increase. 
The  most  up-to-date  equipment  obtainable  is  used,  and 
there  is  practically  no  dissatisfaction  among  patrons 
of  the  station.  So  careful  and  accurate  are  the  weights 
given  that  in  one  month,  shipping  13,000  pounds  of 
cream  to  Kansas  City,  there  was  just  one-tenth  of  a 
pound  difference  between  Wamego  and  Kansas  City 
weights.  A  refund  of  3  per  cent  on  the  volume  of 
business  for  1918  was  made,  amounting  to  approxi- 
mately \l/2  cents  a  pound  more  for  butter-fat. 

Only  hogs  are  handled  in  the  live-stock  department. 
Business  was  begun  in  April,  1918,  and  72  carloads 
of  hogs  were  shipped  during  the  year.  A  total  of 
$224,000  was  paid  to  farmers  in  that  section  for  these 
hogs,  and  the  number  shipped  was  approximately  50 
per  cent  of  the  total  number  going  out  of  Wamego 
for  that  period. 


Securing  Supplies 

QUESTIONS 

To  what  extent  is  securing  of  supplies  a  community  func- 
tion? 

From  what  source  and  in  exchange  for  what  commodities 
does  money  come  into  the  rural  community? 

On  what  portion  of  its  income  does  a  community  support 
public  institutions? 

What  relationship  has  the  securing  of  supplies  to  community 
profit  ? 

Is  it  "unnecessary  middle  processes"  or  "the  middle  men" 
of  whom  it  is  properly  said,  "we  need  to  get  rid  of  them"  ? 

What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  preceding  group  buying 
with  group  marketing? 

Where  there  is  organization  for  marketing,  what  are  some 
of  the  items  of  the  savings  in  cooperative  buying?  What 
are  some  of  the  dangers  in  developing  the  plan  too  rapidly 
and  beyond  certain  limits? 

What  are  some  of  the  differences  in  the  results  between  bulk 
buying  in  carload  lots,  and  securing  supplies  through  a  co- 
operative store?  Between  satisfaction  in  cooperation  on 
the  part  of  American  farmers  and  European  farmers? 

To  what  extent  is  it  desirable  to  maintain  a  friendly  feeling 
between  merchants  and  farmers? 

What  are  some  safeguards  in  the  organization  form  of  a 
farmers'  purchasing  association? 

How  may  the  merchants  safely  encourage  and  develop  the 
spirit  of  cooperation  among  farmers? 

RESEARCH  PROBLEMS 

What  supplies  are  shipped  into  this  community? 

Are  articles  shipped  in  which  could  be  purchased  from  local 

producers  ? 
Are  there  enough,  or  too  many,  retail  stores  for  the  trade 

territory?     How   many  people   are   engaged,   directly   or 

indirectly,  in  retail  business,  and  what  percentage  is  that  of 

the  entire  population? 


100  Rural  Organization 

4.  Do  good  trade  conditions  prevail  between  the  farmers  and 

the  merchants? 

5.  To  what  extent  is  the  mail  order  house  patronized?    Is  the 

effect  on  the  community  good,  or  bad? 

6.  To  what  extent  is  there  cooperative  buying? 

7.  Should  cooperative  buying  be  encouraged? 

8.  In  what  ways  could  retail  trade  conditions  be  improved? 

9.  How  do  prices  charged  for  commodities  in  this  community 

compare  with  those  charged  in  other  like  communities  in 
the  state? 


CHAPTER  IV 

FINANCE 

Individual  Enterprise  Inadequate 

RuRAL_Commumty  Finance  is  a  function  which 
must  be  given  attention  both  for  the_sa1^f  nf  the  jndi- 
vidual  farmer  and  for  the  sake  of  the  community  at 
large._.The  initial  expense  is  great  in  any  new  and 
advanced  farming  operations,  such  as  soils  building, 
drainage,  purebred  beef  production,  and  dairying.  The 
securing  of  an  adequate  sized  farm,  properly  equipped, 
is  in  itself  an  investment  which  frequently  requires 
special  credit  facilities. 

Farm  land  is  the  safest  credit  security  in  the  world, 
and  this  security  lies  in  the  agricultural  community. 
The  acquiring  of  funds  secured  by  farm  mortgage  has 
long  been  considered  entirely  an  individual  function. 
"The  mortgage  on  the  farm"  has  been  made  the  trag- 
edy around  which  many  a  pathetic  story  has  been 
woven.  The  tragedy  of  it  has  really  lain  in  the  "indi- 
vidual" feature,  and  the  utter  helplessness  of  the  one 
who,  in  an  organized  world,  seeks,  alone,  to  solve  the 
problem  of  farm  credits.  The  great  joy  and  general 
celebration  when  the  mortgage  is  paid  off  and  "burned" 
is  a  sequel  parallel  to  the  one  in  which  a  prisoner  com- 

101 


102  Rural  Organisation 

pletes  his  sentence  and  is  released  from  the  peniten- 
tiary. 

This  situation  has  had  a  tendency  to  give  us,  from 
the  standpoint  of  rural  finance,  two  classes  of  farmers 
in  the  rural  community:  those  who  were  struggling 
under  mortgages  on  such  terms  that  they  were  in 
constant  fear  of  losing  their  earthly  possessions;  and 
those  who  were  "out  from  under"  and  were  allowing 
the  most  valuable  credit  security  in  the  world  to  go 
unused;  while  at  the  same  time  the  community  was 
at  a  standstill  in  so  far  as  the  creation  of  new  wealth 
was  concerned.  He  met  with  no  favorable  response  in 
such  a  community  who  undertook  to  develop  an  or- 
ganized movement  for  drainage,  Herefords,  Holsteins, 
and  silos.  How  could  the  community  exercise  its  pro- 
ducing function  when  its  financing  function  was  par- 
alyzed? As  well  shut  off  the  sap  from  the  limb  of  an 
apple  tree,  and  expect  the  branch  to  produce  a  new 
crop  of  fruit.  Here,  again,  what  the  individual  fails 
in  doing  the  community  can  do ;  and  since  new  wealth 
to  be  produced  by  the  proper  use  of  credit  is  to  benefit 
the  whole  people  for  many  years  to  come,  it  is  perfectly 
sound  that  a  considerable  percentage  of  the  land  should 
bear  for  a  number  of  years  the  burden  of  the  credit 
secured.  Nor  should  it  be  required  that  the  money  for 
such  new  enterprises  be  paid  out  in  advance  by  local 
people.  In  the  majority  of  cases  where  the  conditions 
of  finance  are  such  that  this  must  be  done,  the  improve- 
ments will  never  be  undertaken. 

For  every  would-be  borrower  there  is  somewhere  a 


Finance  103 

lender,  if  the  security  is  sound;  and  any  good  method 
that  will  bring  the  two  together  is  of  benefit  to  both. 
This  is  no  more  true  of  the  rural  than  of  the  urban 
community.  When  a  new  industry  is  to  be  established 
in  a  city,  frequently  bonds  are  issued  and  sold  to  the 
public,  the  money  being  secured  in  this  way  to  launch 
and  extend  the  operations.  When  the  city  desires  an 
extension  of  paving,  water  mains,  or  fire  protection, 
bonds  are  voted,  maturing  at  such  a  distant  date  that 
those  who  benefit  by  the  improvement  may  make  small 
payments  through  long  periods  of  time. 

Fundamental  Securities  in  Agricultural  Communities 

Rural  Finance  as  a  community  function  is  based 
upon  the  fundamental  value  of  the  farm  land  and  the 
farm  enterprise,  and  the  mutuality  of  responsibility 
that  is  possible  only  among  neighbors  in  an  agricultural 
section.  The  combination  of  these  values  is  the  basis 
of  various  systems  of  rural  credits  throughout  Europe, 
and  the  basis  of  the  Federal  Farm  Loan  Act  in  the 
United  States  of  America.  The  passage  of  such  an 
Act  does  not  signify  that  any  new  credit  values  have 
been  discovered  or  made  use  of.  The  old  time  Farm 
Mortgage  and  Loan  Company  loaned  money  to  the 
individual  farmer,  taking  his  mortgage  as  security, 
charging  him  a  commission  for  the  transaction,  on  such 
short  time  that  a  renewal  with  another  commission 
would  surely  be  necessary,  at  a  high  rate  of  interest; 
the  loan  company  or  the  local  bank  has  always  (except 


104  Rural  Organisation 

in  time  of  severe  credit  stringency)  been  ready  to  loan 
money  for  a  temporary  farm  enterprise — such  as  the 
fattening  of  a  bunch  of  "feeders" — with  a  chattel  mort- 
gage on  the  steers,  a  high  rate  of  interest,  and  often  a 
commission  for  making  the  loan ;  and  the  average  bank 
will  loan  to  an  individual  a  sum  of  money  on  a  per- 
sonal note  secured  by  the  signatures  of  ten  or  more 
responsible  persons  in  the  neighborhood.  Evidently, 
then,  there  have  been  recognized  three  securities  for 
credit  open  to  the  individual  farmer :  farm  land,  chat- 
tels, and  a  grouped  personal  backing. 

Government  Backing  for  Community  Securities 

What  is  more  logical,  then,  than  to  develop  the  com- 
munity function  of  rural  finance  on  the  same  credit 
basis,  organizing  it  in  a  cooperative  way.  Federal  and 
state  acts  for  rural  credits  only  place  the  protection 
of  government  back  of  the  community  in  developing 
this  function.  If  the  need  and  desire  is  for  long-time 
credit  secured  by  farm  land,  then  government  protects 
the  individual  by  permitting  such  community  organiza- 
tion as  shall  add  to  the  security  the  other  basis  of 
mutuality  also.  If  ten  men  wish  to  make  their  farm 
values  liquid  so  that  more  working  capital  may  be  se- 
cured in  the  community,  and  will  form  an  association 
which  is  binding  to  all  ten  of  them,  and  give  ten  mort- 
gages at  one  time  covering  the  aggregate  amount  of 
the  loan — then  the  community  feature  of  the  loan  ren- 
ders the  security  much  more  valuable  than  if  the  ten, 


Finance 

as  individuals,  had  each  sought  his  loan  from  a  sep- 
arate source.  The  security  becomes,  then,  not  only  ten 
mortgages,  but  also  the  organized  and  mutual  responsi- 
bility of  ten  men,  with  the  added  value  of  government 
supervision.  This  is  the  secret  of  the  power  of  a  local 
National  Farm  Loan  Association. 

"Community  Spirit"  Expressed  in  Financial  Terms 

In  the  United  States  we  have  only  begun  to  make 
use  of  mutuality,  or  organized  "community  spirit,"  as 
a  credit  value  for  the  developing  of  local  enterprises. 
While  there  are  factors  in  the  European  situation 
which  do  not  obtain  in  this  country,  yet  a  very  fine 
interpretation  of  this  phase  of  rural  finance  well  may 
be  emphasized  and  explained  by  quoting  two  leaders 
of  the  rural  finance  movements  of  Italy,  when  mem- 
bers of  the  Commission  on  Cooperation  and  Rural 
Finance  in  Europe  were  investigating  the  Italian  sys- 
tem of  local  rural  credits. 

Hon.  Luigi  Luzzati  declared :  "The  rural  bank,  which 
arose  without  capital,  rich  only  in  its  invisible  treasure 
of  mutual  trust  and  human  solidarity,  is  the  fruit  of 
the  modest,  unrecognized  virtues  of  the  country  folk, 
bound  together  by  bonds  of  mutual  affection,  who  as- 
sist and  watch  over  each  other  with  the  subtle  vigilance 
of  neighbors.  And,  lo  and  behold,  these  humble  folk, 
void  of  economic  lore,  have  accomplished  a  miracle, 
due  to  the  fact  that  a  moral  and  not  a  material  impulse 
guided  their  work — the  miracle  of  creating  capital  out 


106  Rural  Organisation 

of  nothing.  They  have  succeeded  in  coining  their  sim- 
ple good  faith  and  their  honor,  and  in  transforming 
into  concrete  credit — so  rebellious  to  all  idealistic  con- 
siderations— promises  of  payment  guaranteed  only  by 
their  obscure  immortal  souls." 

Later,  in  referring  to  this  statement,  Hon.  Leone 
Wollemborg,  ex-minister  of  the  Treasury,  explained: 
"Nothing  comes  out  of  nothing.  A  mathematical  ex- 
planation can  be  given  of  the  way  in  which  these  rural 
banks  bring  their  capital  together. 

"Suppose  you  have  before  you  100  small  working 
farmers;  they  all  possess  the  qualities  of  honesty,  in- 
dustry, and  labor  capacity;  this  is  their  only  capital. 
Now,  a  capitalist  having  a  hundred  such  men  before 
him  might  with  safety,  under  certain  conditions,  make 
them  a  loan  of  50  francs  each.  The  conditions  with 
which  the  capitalist  has  to  reckon  are  these:  Of  these 
100  men,  some  will  certainly  be  afflicted  with  sickness, 
death,  or  lack  of  employment.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  some  of  these  men  will  certainly  suffer  from  these 
causes,  but  it  is  impossible  to  say  which  man  it  will  be, 
whether  the  tenth,  fiftieth,  or  hundredth  man.  It  is 
impossible,  in  short,  to  foretell  which  individual  of  the 
group  will  be  incapacitated  and  thus  rendered  incapable 
of  repaying  his  loan.  But  one  thing  is  certain,  it  will 
not  be  the  whole  group — only  a  certain  proportion. 
Past  experience  indicates  that  out  of  100,  two  indi- 
viduals are  likely  to  be  incapable  of  repaying  their  loan, 
while  the  others  will  be  able  to  meet  their  obligations. 

"Now,  in  order  to  meet  the  liability,  the  group  must 
undertake  to  become  responsiUeToTTrle" two  members 


Finance  107 

who  are  likely  to  be  unable  to  pay;  they  must  become, 
in  shortT^evefally  and  collectively  responsible^tor  trie 
tolaTToluTlriade  to  the  group.  _J^jne_vQULjhus  be  98 
men  to  repay  the  loan  made  to  the  100.  They  will 
thus  be  able  to  assume  responsibility  for  a  loan  of  49 
francs  each  instead  of  SO,  for  they  will  have  to  as- 
sume responsibility  for  the  2  per  cent  who  will  be 
unable  to  pay;  and,  by  making  themselves  collectively 
responsible  for  the  loan,  they  will  be  able  to  make  it 
for  49  francs  multiplied  by  100.  It  is  thus  seen  that 
the  mathematical  formula  on  which  these  banks  are 
able  to  secure  their  capital  is  nothing  more  than  an 
application  of  the  same  principle  which  governs  insur- 
ance. Therefore,  this  principle  of  unlimited  liability 
is  the  first  principle  underlying  the  rural  banks.  The 
other  principle  is  that  of  limitation  of  the  area  of 
operations,  restricting  it  to  certain  villages  or  localities, 
and  this  limitation  of  area  of  operations  also  consti- 
tutes the  justification  of  the  principle  of  unlimited  lia- 
bility. It  would  not,  indeed,  be  fair  to  expect  a  man 
to  make  himself  responsible  for  a  loan  the  use  of  which 
was  beyond  his  control.  But,  when  the  loans  are  strict- 
ly limited  to  people  residing  in  the  same  locality,  all 
can  become  vigilant  and  act  as  inspectors  for  their  own 
protection." 

Credit  in  Terms  of  Community  Service 

The  function  of  rural  finance  may  be  greatly  stimu- 
lated and  encouraged  under  any  existing  system,  where 
a  local  banker  and  the  bank  directors  have  real  com- 


108  Rural  Organization 

munity  spirit.  Service  rendered  to  a  local  people  in 
this  regard  is  on  a  sound  economic  basis,  if  credit  is 
extended  always  for  a  new  wealth-producing  enterprise 
that  has  fairly  sure  elements  of  success.  If  a  bank  will 
encourage  such  enterprises  throughout  an  entire  com- 
munity, liberally  extending  credit  for  them,  the  value 
of  the  new  wealth  so  produced  will  of  course  register 
in  bank  deposits  and  new  business  of  every  sort.  Such 
credits  become  not  only  interest-producing  loans,  but 
real  investments.  A  few  instances  already  are  develop- 
ing in  which  local  banks  in  rural  communities  are  em- 
ploying agricultural  specialists  to  encourage  and  foster 
such  organizations  as  dairy  clubs,  pig  clubs,  bull  clubs, 
etc.,  the  money  for  the  first  investment  being  loaned 
by  the  bank  at  a  low  rate  of  interest  and  often  on  long 
time  with  provision  for  small  payments. 

While  new  laws  providing  for  the  easier  expression 
of  community  interest  in  terms  of  finance  are  desir- 
able, yet  with  community  spirit  that  is  ready  to  func- 
tion in  this  way  many  plans  may  be  devised  under 
existing  laws  whereby  the  community  may  function  in 
rural  finance. 

TYPICAL  ORGANIZATIONS    AND   PROJECTS 

National  Farm  Loan  Association 

A  national  farm  loan  association  is  an  organization 
of  at  least  ten  farmers  who  wish  to  borrow  money 
for  the  purpose  of  paying  existing  indebtedness,  pur- 
chasing farm  land,  or  developing  any  new  wealth-pro- 


Finance  1 09 

ducing  farm  enterprise.  There  is  no  better  way  in 
which  the  wealth  of  an  agricultural  community  may 
be  developed,  and  the  people  encouraged  in  habits  of 
thrift  and  real  economy.  By  this  method  mortgages 
that  are  now  eating  up  the  value  of  farm  land  in  the 
community  because  of  exorbitant  commissions  and 
high  rates  of  interest  can  be  paid  off  and  placed  on  an 
equitable  basis;  the  value  of  farm  land  that  is  free 
of  incumbrance  may  be  set  to  work  producing  new 
wealth  that  will  be  an  addition  to  all  community  activ- 
ities ;  and  the  idle  money  of  small  investors  may  be  put 
to  work  for  the  welfare  of  the  community. 

The  method  of  organizing  a  National  Farm  Loan 
Association  is  thus  outlined  by  the  Federal  Farm  Loan 
Board : 

"One  of  the  organizers  should  write  to  the  federal 
land  bank  of  that  district  asking  for  blanks  and  instruc- 
tions as  to  how  to  proceed,  which  will  be  mailed  on 
request.  When  these  are  received  the  prospective  bor- 
rowers should  hold  an  organization  meeting  and  elect 
from  their  members  a  board  of  five  or  more  directors, 
and  this  board  should  elect  a  loan  committee  of  three : 
a  president,  vice-president,  and  a  secretary-treasurer 
who  is  a  bonded  officer.  The  secretary-treasurer  may 
or  may  not  be  a  member  of  the  association.  These 
prospective  borrowers  should  be  ten  or  more  in  num- 
ber and  should  apply  for  loans  amounting  to  $20,000 
or  more.  These  ten  or  more  farmers  should  make 
application  in  writing  to  the  federal  land  bank  for 
loans  to  the  aggregate  amount  of  $20,000  and  for  a 
charter  to  do  business.  They  must  sign  and  ac- 


110  Rural  Organisation 

knowledge  articles  of  association  and  forward  them  to 
the  federal  land  bank.  The  federal  land  bank  will  then 
send  its  appraiser  to  inspect  the  land  offered  as  secur- 
ity for  the  loans  applied  for,  and,  if  satisfactory,  the 
loans  will  be  authorized  when  the  charter  is  granted 
to  the  association.  The  bank  then  advances  the  money 
through  the  secretary-treasurer  of  the  local  association. 
In  the  application  signed  by  borrowers  each  must  indi- 
cate how  much  money  he  desires  and  must  list  the  value 
of  the  land  to  be  mortgaged  as  security. 

"The  following  table  shows  the  number  designating 
each  bank  district,  the  states  included  in  the  district, 
and  the  cities  in  which  the  banks  are  located: 

District                                                                            Federal  Land 
No. States Bank  at 

1.  Maine,   Massachusetts,   Vermont,    Ney» 

Hampshire,   Rhode   Island,   Connecti- 
cut, New  Jersey,  and  New  York Springfield,  Mass. 

2.  Pennsylvania,    West    Virginia,    Mary- 

land,   Delaware,    Virginia,    and    Dis- 
trict of  Columbia   Baltimore,  Md. 

3.  North      Carolina,       South      Carolina, 

Georgia,  and  Florida   Columbia,  S.  C. 

4.  Indiana,    Ohio,    Kentucky,    and    Ten- 

nessee   . .' Louisville,  Ky. 

5.  Louisiana,  Mississippi  and  Alabama. . .  New  Orleans,  La. 

6.  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Arkansas St.  Louis,  Mo. 

7.  North   Dakota,    Minnesota,    Wisconsin, 

and  Michigan    St.  Paul,  Minn. 

8.  Wyoming,     Nebraska,     South     Dakota, 

and   Iowa    Omaha,  Nebr. 

9.  New  Mexico,  Kansas,  Colorado,  Okla- 

homa     Wichita,  Kans. 

10.  Texas    Houston,  Tex. 

11.  California,  Nevada,  Utah,  Arizona Berkeley,  Cal. 

12.  Idaho,      Washington,     Montana,     and 

Oregon    Spokane,  Wash. 


Finance  111 

"Persons  desiring  to  get  in  touch  with  any  of  these 
banks  should  address  them  in  this  style :  'Federal  Land 
Bank  of  Springfield,  Springfield,  Mass.'  The  banks 
are  equipped  with  all  the  necessary  literature  to  accom- 
modate inquirers." 

The  Joint  Note 

In  a  Kansas  community  a  group  of  farmers  wished 
to  change  the  local  product  from  grain  crops  to  dairy 
products.  They  saw  the  necessity  of  bringing  in  pure- 
bred dairy  animals  of  a  uniform  breed.  This  meant 
an  immediate  and  large  outlay  of  new  capital,  which 
none  of  them  possessed.  They  made  use  of  a  not  un- 
common method  to  finance  this  new  community  enter- 
prise. 

The  banks  of  the  small  city  center  were  interested 
in  the  proposition,  and,  although  no  one  of  them  could 
handle  it  alone,  they  devised  a  plan  whereby  collec- 
tively they  could  make  the  loan  of  the  needed  sum  of 
money. 

The  group  of  farmers  signed  a  joint  note  for  the 
entire  sum,  by  which  each  one  assumed  unlimited  liabil- 
ity for  the  group,  also  agreeing  to  execute  a  chattel 
mortgage  on  the  animals  after  they  had  been  purchased 
and  distributed  to  their  individual  owners. 

A  representative  was  chosen  from  the  group  to  go 
to  a  northern  Holstein  producing  section  and  secure 
the  purebred  cows  and  bulls — the  latter  to  be  owned 
cooperatively  by  the  entire  group.  A  dairy  specialist 
from  the  Agricultural  College  was  prevailed  upon  to 


112  Rural  Organisation 

accompany  this  local  representative,  in  order  that  they 
might  secure  expert  advice.  The  expenses  of  the  trip 
and  the  shipment  were  borne  out  of  the  fund  borrowed 
on  the  joint  note,  and  of  course  prorated  as  an  addi- 
tion to  the  cost  of  the  animals  when  they  had  reached 
their  destination. 

The  larger  number  of  the  animals  were  bred  heifers, 
and  in  the  course  of  time  the  sale  of  a  percentage  of 
the  offspring  and  of  the  milk  products  entirely  liqui- 
dated the  original  loan,  releasing  the  members  of  the 
group  from  their  obligation  of  the  joint  note.  There 
was  added  to  the  community,  entirely  free  of  debt,  not 
only  the  new  wealth  represented  in  the  animals  pur- 
chased, but  also  the  constant  supply  of  new  wealth 
through  the  sale  of  the  new  product. 

Commercial  Organisation  in  Rural  Finance 

The  business  men  of  a  small  city  center  in  the  Cen- 
tral West  saw  the  need  of  establishing  some  manufac- 
turing industry  that  would  make  a  demand  for  in- 
creased farm  production  by  offering  it  a  market.  They 
decided  upon  a  milk  condensing  plant,  and  found  it  not 
a  difficult  matter  to  induce  a  company  to  install  and 
operate  such  a  plant.  Investigation  showed  that  there 
was  not  a  sufficient  number  of  dairy  cows  in  the  trade 
area  to  supply  the  necessary  milk  for  the  condensing 
plant,  and  that  the  farmers  who  were  willing  to  go 
into  the  dairy  business  and  capable  of  making  a  suc- 
cess in  it  were  not  financially  able  to  make  the  new 
investment. 


Finance  113 

Since  it  was  particularly  to  the  interest  of  the  busi- 
ness men  of  the  small  city  center  that  the  condensing 
plant  be  established,  they  created  a  loan  fund  for  the 
purchase  of  cows  and  necessary  equipment.  Purebred 
and  high-grade  animals  were  shipped  in  from  a  dairy 
section,  and  placed  with  the  farmers  according  to  their 
ability  to  handle  them.  When  the  new  industry  was 
in  operation,  and  the  milk  being  sold  regularly  to  the 
condensing  plant,  it  was  arranged  that  each  farmer 
should  pay  the  amount  loaned  to  him  by  a  very  small 
payment  out  of  the  milk  check  each  week. 

By  the  organization  of  this  financial  plan  on  the 
part  of  the  business  men  at  the  town  center,  the  new 
product  paid  for  the  investment  and  is  now  developing 
new  wealth  for  the  entire  community. 

Incidentally,  when  enthusiasm  came  on  for  "good 
roads,"  because  the  town  people  and  the  country  people 
had  some  product  in  which  they  were  commonly  inter- 
ested to  be  hauled  over  their  roads,  there  was  no  diffi- 
culty in  getting  them  to  vote  the  necessary  funds  for 
hard-surfaced  roads — and  their  county  has  led  all  the 
other  counties  in  the  state  in  this  regard. 

A  Community  Bank 

A  banker  with  "community  vision"  came  into  a 
small  community  about  fifteen  years  ago  to  establish 
a  bank  as  the  center  of  community  service.  It  was 
difficult  for  him  to  get  a  charter,  because  the  one  bank 
already  there  seemed  to  be  sufficient  to  handle  all  the 
business  of  the  little  city  and  its  immediate  environs. 


114  Rural  Organisation 

This  banker  believed,  however,  that  he  could  conduct 
a  bank  in  the  cooperative  spirit,  even  though  it  was 
not  possible  to  make  technically  a  "cooperative  bank." 

A  survey  of  the  larger  community  with  its  extensive 
agricultural  area  showed  that  there  were  distinct  neigh- 
borhoods, in  each  of  which  was  some  substantial,  influ- 
ential farmer,  who  was  not  officially  connected  with 
any  bank.  On  the  basis  of  a  community  map  so  out- 
lined, the  community  banker  organized  his  tank;  so 
that  eventually  the  directors  and  stockholders  were 
located  in  strategic  neighborhood  centers  throughout 
the  entire  community. 

Each  director  and  each  stockholder  was  then  recog- 
nized as  an  agent  to  get  business  for  the  bank,  and 
his  influence  among  his  neighbors  was  very  properly 
capitalized  for  the  good  of  the  institution  in  which 
they  were  all  to  be  mutually  interested. 

Next  an  insurance  department  was  established.  A 
trained  insurance  man  was  employed  by  the  bank,  on 
salary,  the  bank  becoming  agent  for  old  line  companies 
writing  insurance  for  fire,  hail,  tornado,  etc.  The  in- 
surance man  was  introduced  into  each  little  neighbor- 
hood by  the  stockholder  who  had  been  chosen  from 
that  neighborhood,  and  the  bulk  of  the  business  se- 
cured brought  good  returns  over  and  above  the  ex- 
penses and  salary  of  the  agent. 

But  this  bank  renders  other  service.  The  stock- 
holders watch  diligently  for  new  enterprises  which 
they  may  suggest  to  their  neighbors,  which  will  call 
for  the  investment  of  borrowed  capital — loans  which 


Finance  115 

will  be  recognized  as  perfectly  safe  because  of  prop- 
erty backing  and  neighborhood  acquaintance,  but  espe- 
cially because  the  money  will  be  put  into  new  wealth- 
producing  enterprises.  Such  loans  are  made  through 
the  bank.  It  then  becomes  essential  for  the  interested 
neighbors  to  render  every  possible  assistance  in  making 
the  new  enterprise  successful,  with  the  result  that  not 
only  is  the  money  paid  with  interest,  but  added  money 
from  that  goes  into  deposit  in  the  bank. 

This  bank  has  placed  funds  behind  farm  boys  and 
girls  in  their  dairy  club  projects,  their  pig  club  proj- 
ects— in  fact,  in  anything  which  they  wish  to  do  which 
will  prove  a  good  investment. 

In  this  case  "neighborliness"  has  been  placed  on  a 
sound  economic  basis,  and  a  way  has  been  found,  with- 
out any  new  legislation  which  might  be  termed  "pater- 
nalistic," or  without  any  faddish  form  of  new  financial 
organization,  to  build  up  local  rural  finance. 


Local  Credit   Union 

Many  of  the  nations  of  the  old  world,  and  a  num- 
ber of  the  states  in  the  United  States,  have  legal  pro- 
visions for  the  Local  Credit  Union.  Any  group  of 
neighbors  who  want  to  save  their  spare  money,  how- 
ever little  that  may  be,  may  organize  a  credit  union. 
The  savings  thus  invested  are  loaned  to  such  members 
of  the  union  who  may  at  times  apply  for  loans.  If 
any  of  the  savings  are  not  loaned,  they  are  deposited 


116  Rural  Organisation 

for  safekeeping  in  the  nearest  bank  until  application 
is  made  for  them. 

The  treasurer  of  the  union  is  one  of  the  members 
and  handles  all  the  money  involved  and  therefore  must 
be  bonded.  The  members  receive  4  per  cent  interest 
on  the  money  deposited  with  the  union.  Members  who 
borrow  pay  6  per  cent  interest,  2  per  cent  being  used 
to  pay  the  actual  expenses  of  doing  the  business. 

Members  can  borrow  money  only  for  investment  in 
productive  farm  enterprises,  because  a  loan  for  a  pro- 
ductive purpose  will  soon  pay  for  itself,  and  the  neigh- 
bors who  are  members  of  the  union  and  whose  money 
is  being  used  will  put  forth  every  effort  to  make  the 
enterprise  successful. 

The  borrower  must  give  his  note  to  the  union  when 
he  receives  the  amount  of  the  loan,  and  it  must  be 
signed  by  one  or  two  of  his  neighbors  for  security. 
The  credit  union  has  a  credit  committee  of  three  to 
decide  whether  the  security  and  the  nature  of  the  pro- 
posed enterprise  are  such  as  to  warrant  the  loan. 

Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Company  * 

Farmers'  mutual  fire  insurance  companies  represent 
one  of  the  most  successful  efforts  at  rural  cooperation 
in  the  United  States.  Nearly  2000  such  companies  are 
in  existence,  a  total  amount  of  insurance  in  force  ex- 

*  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  No.  530- — 
The  Organization  and  Management  of  a  Farmers'  Mutual  Fire 
Insurance  Company,  by  V.  N.  Valgren,  investigator  in  agri- 
cultural insurance. 


Finance  117 

ceeding  five  and  a  half  billion  dollars.  These  com- 
panies are  increasing  rapidly  in  number  and  size.  In 
some  states  of  the  Middle  West  fully  three-fourths 
of  all  insurable  farm  property  is  now  insured  in  the 
farmers'  own  companies.  Organizations  of  this  kind 
are  found  in  every  state  except  Florida,  Mississippi, 
Louisiana,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Nevada. 

The  organization  of  a  farmers'  mutual  insurance 
company  should  be  preceded  by  a  certain  amount  of 
preparatory  work.  The  legal  step  of  incorporation 
should  not  be  taken  until  as  large  a  percentage  as  pos- 
sible of  the  substantial  farmers  in  the  community  have 
been  interested  in  the  undertaking.  Twenty-five  states 
now  provide  in  a  separate  chapter  or  division  of  their 
insurance  laws  for  the  incorporation  of  farmers'  mu- 
tual fire  insurance  companies.  In  most  of  the  other 
states  it  is  possible  to  incorporate  such  companies  under 
the  insurance  laws  referring  to  fire  insurance  mutuals 
in  general. 

In  any  case  the  organizers  are  required  to  set  forth 
in  a  formal  paper,  usually  called  articles  of  incorpora- 
tion, the  name  of  the  proposed  company,  the  location 
of  its  home  office,  the  purpose  of  the  organization,  the 
business  territory,  the  conditions  of  membership,  a 
brief  outline  of  the  form  of  management  proposed, 
and  the  conditions  under  which  the  various  provisions 
outlined  in  the  articles  of  incorporation  may  be  altered 
or  amended. 

The  purpose  of  the  organization  should  be  stated 
clearly  in  the  by-laws.  It  should  be  made  evident  that 


118  Rural  Organisation 

the  object  of  the  company  is  to  safeguard  its  members 
against  the  burdens  of  disastrous  losses,  and  that  this 
is  to  be  accomplished  in  the  way  that  best  serves  the 
interests  of  the  membership  as  a  whole.  This  means 
that  the  company  must  promote  energetically  the  elim- 
ination of  preventable  losses  and  distribute  on  an  equi- 
table basis  the  burden  from  those  losses  that  it  can  not 
prevent. 

There  has  been  a  growing  tendency  in  recent  years 
on  the  part  of  leigslatures  to  permit  farmers'  mutuals 
a  wide  business  territory.  Several  states  now  permit 
companies  of  this  kind  to  operate  in  the  entire  state. 
The  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  companies  to  avail 
themselves  of  this  privilege  has  been  somewhat  less 
marked.  While  it  seems  a  natural  ambition  on  tiie  part 
of  a  farmers'  mutual  to  desire  to  grow  by  extension 
of  its  territory  as  well  as  by  adding  to  its  risks  within 
the  territory  already  partly  covered,  there  is  danger 
that  such  ambition  eventually  will  lead  to  less  desirable 
results.  One  of  the  most  important  advantages  that 
farmers'  mutuals  in  general  enjoy  over  larger  com- 
panies is  that  of  a  community  interest  and  a  community 
pride  in  the  success  of  the  undertaking.  Each  member 
distinctly  feels  himself  a  part  of  the  company.  The 
individual  member  actively  promotes  the  interests  of 
the  organization,  is  anxious  to  see  all  losers  receive 
equal  justice,  and  is  usually  satisfied  with  a  reasonable 
settlement  in  case  he  himself  suffers  a  loss.  These  con- 
ditions, together  with  the  knowledge  of  one  another's 


Finance  119 

character  and  business  affairs,  tend  to  reduce  the  moral 
hazard  to  a  minimum. 

Even  if  a  case  of  over-insurance  in  a  farmers'  mu- 
tual should  occur  in  connection  with  property  owned 
by  an  unscrupulous  member  who  would  be  quite  ready 
to  occasion  a  loss  to  a  large  insurance  company,  located 
perhaps  in  a  distant  city,  such  a  member  is  likely  to 
hesitate  to  throw  the  loss  upon  his  own  neighbors. 
Thus  the  moral  hazard  is  greatly  reduced  in  the  local 
farmers'  mutual.  Many  of  the  local  mutuals  have  done 
business  for  half  a  century  or  more  without  a  single 
lawsuit.  Such  a  record  would  rarely  be  possible  except 
in  a  company  founded  on  true  cooperation  and  embody- 
ing the  principle  of  community  interest  in  some  direct 
form.  When  risks  are  confined  to  a  limited  territory 
the  saving  in  traveling  expenses  of  directors,  inspectors, 
and  adjusters  is  also  a  large  item. 

All  persons  whose  applications  for  insurance  have 
been  accepted  should  be  members  of  the  company  in 
every  sense  of  the  word.  The  character  of  the  owner 
as  well  as  the  physical  condition  of  the  property  should 
be  considered  before  the  application  is  approved.  Once 
his  application  is  accepted  and  a  policy  is  issued  to  him, 
however,  the  new  member  should  be  treated  in  exactly 
the  same  way  as  the  charter  members. 

Active  cooperation  of  all  the  members  should  be  the 
aim.  The  annual  meeting  should  be  well  advertised 
and,  if  possible,  made  an  interesting  and  significant 
community  event.  Members  who  know  little  or  noth- 


120  Rural  Organisation 

ing  about  the  organization  to  which  they  belong  can 
hardly  be  expected  to  prove  effective  voluntary  pro- 
moters of  its  interests. 

A  cooperative  organization  is  logically  an  aggrega- 
tion of  persons  rather  than  of  wealth.  While  many 
plans  of  voting  based  on  the  amount  of  insurance  car- 
ried are  in  use  by  the  farmers'  mutuals  in  different 
states,  it  is  commonly  conceded  that  the  simple  plan 
under  which  each  member  has  one  vote  for  each  official 
to  be  elected,  or  for  each  measure  to  be  passed  upon, 
is  best. 

A  Nebraska  Cooperative  Fire  Insurance  Company  * 

Fire  and  lightning  insurance  is  costing  the  members 
of  the  Mutual  Protective  Association,  of  Jefferson 
County,  Nebraska,  only  1 5  cents  for  each  one  hundred 
dollars'  worth  of  protection.  The  association  was  or- 
ganized on  the  mutual  plan  thirty-eight  years  ago,  and 
it  has  saved  its  members  hundreds  of  dollars.  Expenses 
are  kept  down  to  a  minimum,  there  being  no  high-sal- 
aried officers  nor  high  rental  office  buildings  to  main- 
tain. 

A  head  secretary  is  elected  every  three  years,  to  gov- 
ern the  affairs  of  the  association,  his  salary  being  a  cer- 
tain per  cent  of  the  fees,  and  $2  for  each  claim 
adjusted.  For  example,  any  one  taking  out  insurance 
pays  20  cents  for  every  hundred  dollars  insured.  Be- 
sides this,  he  pays  the  secretary  5  cents  for  entering 

*  Wallace's  Farmer,  May  28,  1915. 


Finance  121 

his  name.  The  secretary  gets  5  cents  on  each  hundred 
dollars  of  insurance  taken  out,  and  the  remaining  15 
cents  goes  into  the  general  treasury  for  payment  of 
losses  and  expenses.  After  the  first  year,  a  member 
is  assessed  15  cents  on  each  one  hundred  dollars  of 
insurance  he  carries.  This  is  payable  in  March  each 
year.  Failure  to  meet  the  assessment  before  April  1 
means  that  a  member  becomes  suspended  and  has  no 
claim  for  losses  until  he  is  reinstated. 

The  association  insures  stock  and  buildings  in  other 
counties  or  states.  A  group  of  farmers  elect  an  adjuster 
and  make  payments  to  him  the  same  as  they  would  to 
the  head  secretary.  The  adjuster  also  gets  5  cents  for 
each  one  hundred  dollars  insured,  and  5  cents  for  enter- 
ing each  name.  Fifteen  cents  for  each  one  hundred 
dollars  insured  is  forwarded  to  the  head  secretary. 

The  organization  will  not  insure  property  for  more 
than  two-thirds  of  its  value.  This  includes  buildings, 
live-stock,  tools,  and  general  farm  equipment.  The 
limit  of  insurance  on  horses  or  mules  is  $100,  on  stal- 
lions $500,  cattle  $40,  bulls  $100,  hogs  $15,  and  sheep 
$5.  Other  property  is  in  proportion,  but  no  building 
will  be  insured  for  more  than  $1500,  and  no  member 
can  carry  insurance  greater  than  $3000  on  all  his  build- 
ings and  equipment.  Cattle  and  grain  are  not  included 
in  this. 

When  grain  or  hay  stacks  are  to  be  insured,  a  mem- 
ber must  take  the  precaution  of  plowing  around  the 
stacks.  Only  one-half  the  loss  is  paid  on  these  stacks 
if  the  fire  was  caused  by  negligence  on  the  part  of 


122  Rural  Organisation 

the  threshing  machine  owners.  The  association  does 
not  accept  threshing  machines  for  insurance,  on  account 
of  the  great  risk. 

Insurance  is  taken  on  town  buildings  when  they  are 
situated  at  least  150  feet  from  other  buildings.  In 
the  case  of  farm  dwellings  the  chimneys  must  extend 
at  least  two  feet  above  the  roof,  and  must  be  kept  in 
good  repair.  As  a  protection  against  prairie  fires  in 
localities  where  they  are  likely  to  occur,  a  member  must 
plow  around  his  buildings  a  strip  of  sufficient  width  to 
afford  protection. 

During  the  nearly  forty  years  of  the  organization's 
existence,  the  annual  loss  has  not  been  more  than  15 
cents  on  each  one  hundred  dollars  insured,  and  this 
has  been  enough  to  pay  all  expenses.  The  head  secre- 
tary has  the  power  of  making  an  extra  assessment  upon 
all  members  in  the  event  of  a  deficit  in  the  treasury. 
The  aim  is  to  adjust  and  pay  all  losses  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  a  fire,  but  they  must  be  paid  within  sixty 
days. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  natural  basis  of  rural  credit  in  a  local  agri- 

cultural community? 

2.  What  is  the  relation  of  rural  finance  to  production,  market- 

ing and  securing  supplies? 

3.  To  what  extent,  for  individual  and  community  good,  should 

farmers  make  use  of  the  credit  value  represented  in  their 
land?    For  what  purposes? 

4.  Compare,  from  the  farmer's  standpoint,  the  plan  of  the  old 

type  of  farm  loan  company  with  the  plan  of  the  Federal 
Farm  Loan  Act. 

5.  To  what  extent,  in  an  American  rural  community,  may  the 

principle  of  "mutuality"  be  depended  upon  in  organizing  a 
local  credit  system? 


Finance  123 

6.  How  may  a  bank  in  a  rural  community,  without  any  change 

in  laws,  become  a  "rural  bank"  in  spirit  and  method? 

7.  What  is  a  National  Farm  Loan  Association? 

8.  How  may  credit  for  financing  a  group  farm  project  be  se- 

cured through  a  "joint  note"? 

9.  How  may  a  commercial  organization  aid  in  securing  farm 

credits  ? 

10.  Describe  a  local  credit  union. 

11.  Describe  a  farmers'  mutual  fire  insurance  company. 


1.  What  is  the  total  farm  land  mortgage  in  this  community? 

2.  What  is  the  prevailing  rate  of  interest? 

3.  What  commission  is  ordinarily  paid  by  the  farmer  who  bor- 

rows through  a  local  representative  of  a  farm  mortgage 
company? 

4.  If  there  is  a  local  farm  mortgage  company,  what  has  been  its 

aggregate  business  in  this  community  during  the  last  fiscal 
year?  How  much  of  this  is  profit? 

5.  What  available  farm  credit  is  unused?    Why? 

6.  Is  a   National   Farm  Loan   Association  in  this   community 

desirable? 

7.  How  much  money  do  the  farmers  have  at  any  given  time 

on  deposit  in  checking  accounts  at  local  banks?  How 
much  in  savings  accounts  and  at  what  rate  of  interest? 

8.  What  new  wealth-producing  enterprises  could  be  developed 

with  profit,  if  capital  were  available?  To  what  extent 
would  local  farmers'  bank  balances  and  savings  accounts 
supply  the  capital  ? 

9.  Does  any  bank  in  the  community  especially  encourage  and 

financially  back  farmers  in  new  wealth-producing  enter- 
prises? If  not,  what  would  be  the  best  means  of  securing 
such  service? 

10.  How  much  local  money  has  gone  into  investments  outside 

the  community  during  the  last  year? 

11.  Is  there  a  farmers'  mutual  fire  insurance  company  operating 

here,  or  is  such  an  organization  needed  or  desirable? 

12.  Is  there  any  movement  locally  for  the  purpose  of  inculcating 

habits  of  thrift  in  the  young  people? 


CHAPTER  V 

COMMUNICATION    AND   TRANSPORTATION 

Modern  Conditions  Depend  upon  Organised  Action 
As  the  individual  must  be  able  to  speak  and  move 

ahoiii^gojlip  rnmmnnify  must  he_abk_tP_ _COmmunicate 

and  travel  freely,  both  for  internal  relations  and  for 
relationship  with /the  outside  world.  While  this  two- 
fold function  could  never  be  said  to  be  entirely  indi- 
vidual, yet  we  did  pass  through  a  time  when  the  pro- 
visions for  exercising  the  function  were  left  to  the 
responsibility  of  the  individual.  In  that  day,  time  was 
not  of  so  great  importance  to  the  individual.  Did  the 
farmer  want  to  borrow  an  implement?  He  hitched  up 
the  horse,  drove  to  a  neighboring  farmer's  house  to 
see  if  he  could  borrow  it  there.  If  that  neighbor  could 
not  accommodate  him,  he  drove  on  to  the  next — and 
perhaps  the  entire  day  was  occupied  in  finding  the  im- 
plement desired.  But  now  he  steps  to  the  'phone  in 
his  own  home,  "rings"  a  few  of  the  neighbors,  one 
after  the  other,  and  in  ten  minutes  is  in  touch  with 
an  entire  community  and  has  found  out  where  he  can 
get  the  implement.  If  his  own  neighbors  can  not  sup- 
ply it,  he  can,  for  a  few  extra  cents,  call  up  a  farmer 
twenty-five  miles  away,  negotiate  the  loan,  and  secure 

124 


Communication  and  Transportation          125 

the  implement  with  his   auto — all  in  a  period  of  a 
couple  of  hours. 

It  would  hardly  be  possible  for  a  live-stock  shipping 
association  to  operate  if  it  were  not  for  the  fact  that 
the  shipping  agent  can  notify  the  shippers  in  a  few 
minutes  of  the  time  and  method  of  shipment.  Like- 
wise, bulk  purchases  through  the  cooperative  elevator 
company  would  not  be  conveniently  made  if  their  ar- 
rival could  not  be  quickly  announced  over  the  'phone. 
The  consternation  caused  through  an  entire  rural  com- 
munity when  a  severe  storm  puts  the  telephone  system 
out  of  commission  for  a  few  days  only  proves  that 
the  telephone  has  come  to  be  a  community  function 
upon  which  the  normal  life  of  an  entire  social  unit 
depends.  Since  this  is  true,  the  telephone  system  be- 
comes the  proper  subject  for  discussion  by  the  people 
in  their  group  meetings,  and  for  united  action  through 
effective  committees. 

Unified  Telephone  System  Essential 

It  is  especially  important  that  the  telephone  system 
should  be  one  throughout  an  entire  community.  One 
might  almost  say  that  if  a  unity  of  life  is  lo  be  main- 
tained at  all,  it  is  as  important  that  the  community 
have  a  common  system  of  communication  as  it  is  that 
an  individual  should  have  a  common  circulatory  system. 
One  who  is  interested  in  the  common  relationship  of 
groups  of  words  sees  a  real  significance  in  the  simi- 
larity of  such  words  as  "unity,"  "communion,"  "com- 


126  Rural  Organisation 

munity,"  and  "communication."  In  modern  life  at 
least,  there  can  be  no  unity,  nor  communion  of  people, 
nor  community  of  interests,  without  giving  special  or- 
ganized attention  to  the  means  of  communication. 

Two  telephones  in  the  same  home  usually  stand  as 
proofs  that  the  community  is  divided.  Through  a 
period  of  strife,  enough  opposition  to  the  existing  sys- 
tem is  generated  to  make  it  possible,  at  new  expense, 
to  organize  a  portion  of  the  local  population  into  an- 
other system.  In  such  a  section  the  big  live-stock 
farmer  who  wishes  to  deal  quickly  with  neighbors  liv- 
ing in  various  directions  must  rent  two  'phones  instead 
of  one.  The  man  who  feels  he  can  not  afford  two 
'phones  often  loses  an  opportunity  for  economic  trade 
or  social  enjoyment,  because  he  does  not  happen  to  be 
on  the  line  of  the  one  who  would  otherwise  deal  with 
him.  This  division  is  sometimes  threaded  in  and  out 
over  an  entire  area,  in  which  case  it  is  difficult  to  cor- 
rect, since  the  uniting  of  these  two  means  of  com- 
munication involves  the  tearing  down  of  certain  dupli- 
cating lines  and  the  discontinuance  of  certain  'phone 
service.  In  other  cases  it  represents  two  opposing  areas, 
in  which  case  there  are  few  physical  difficulties  to 
uniting  the  systems,  with  only  the  necessity  of  discon- 
tinuing one  central  office  and  connecting  the  wire  to 
the  other.  Where  there  is  unity  of  service,  by  all  means 
the  bringing  in  of  duplication  should  be  discounte- 
nanced, and  where  there  is  duplication  or  division 
unity  should  be  brought  about  as  soon  as  possible  for 
the  sake  of  community  welfare. 


Communication  and  Transportation          127 

Community  solidarity  is  best  conserved  where  the 
central  exchange  of  this  system  of  communication  is 
located  at  the  center  of  the  community — namely,  the 
village  or  small  city.  Sometimes  patrons  boast  that 
they  are  on  a  central  line  from  a  distant  city — as 
though  in  some  way  this  gives  them  a  more  cosmo- 
politan citizenship.  Of  course,  where  an  attempt  has 
been  made  to  develop  a  community  on  too  small  a 
scale,  such  an  extended  system  may  be  essential,  but 
if  a  community  is  to  be  complete  in  all  of  its  functions, 
it  is  as  necessary  that  it  should  have  its  own  telephone 
central  as  it  is  that  it  should  have  its  own  shipping 
and  trade  center. 

Spirit  of  Mutuality  Maintained 

Mutual  telephone  companies  have  developed  rapidly 
throughout  many  areas  of  rural  America.  Since  this 
matter  of  communication  is  a  mutual  function,  it  is 
quite  natural  that  its  organization  should  have  devel- 
oped along  lines  of  mutuality.  It  is  often  claimed  that 
a  mutual  company  can  render  service  at  a  lower  rate 
than  is  possible  to  receive  from  an  individual  owner 
or  a  corporation.  Of  course  the  essential  thing  in  this 
connection  is  that  the  spirit  and  practice  of  mutuality 
be  maintained.  If  it  is  thoroughly  understood  that  this 
is  a  community  function,  and  not  an  individual  func- 
tion— that  the  objective  is  not  excessive  profit  but 
community  service — then  the  exact  form  will  not  make 
so  much  difference.  There  are  those  who  believe  that 


128  Rural  Organisation 

in  all  such  matters  local  citizens  should  buy  expert 
service  from  those  who  are  trained  to  render  it  and 
who  have  it  to  sell.  They  argue  that  the  average  citi- 
zen can  make  more  money  by  expending  on  his  own 
job  the  time  and  money  and  energy  which  he  expends 
in  trying  cooperatively  to  conduct  a  line  of  business 
for  which  he  has  no  inclination  or  training.  It  is  some- 
times argued  that  even  if  such  special  service  should 
cost  him  more  when  rendered  by  an  individual  or  cor- 
poration than  when  rendered  through  a  mutual  com- 
pany, he  can  better  afford  to  pay  the  larger  cost  for 
the  better  service  which  he  receives  and  for  the  extra 
time  and  money  and  energy  which  he  will  save  and 
use  for  conserving  his  own  interests.  The  fact  prob- 
ably is  that  whether  the  community  shall  perform  this 
function  through  a  mutual  cooperative  company,  or 
through  employing  the  service  of  an  individual  or 
corporation,  will  depend  entirely  on  the  nature  of 
many  factors  in  the  local  situation.  The  main  thing 
to  be  remembered  is  that  this  is  a  community  function, 
that  the  system  must  be  one  and  must  be  community- 
wide,  and  that  it  must  properly  serve  in  performing 
for  all  the  citizens  this  function  of  communication. 

Service  of  Free  Delivery  to  Rural  Community  * 

Since  the  inauguration  of  rural  free  delivery,  the 
'mail  service  has  come  in  a  peculiar  sense  to  be  a  func- 
tion of  the  community.    The  mail  is  delivered  first  to 
the  central  village  or  small  city  post  office.    There  it 


Communication  and  Transportation          129 

is  sorted  according  to  routes  which  radiate  from  the 
center  through  the  agricultural  area.  Rural  carriers 
deliver  the  mail  on  these  routes  each  day,  keeping  a 
constant  line  of  communication  open  from  the  out- 
side world,  the  city  center  and  to  each  farm,  and  back 
again.  Here  is  an  element  of  personal  touch,  the  im- 
portance of  which  is  frequently  overlooked.  The  per- 
sonal visitation  of  the  rural  carriers,  federal  employees, 
living  in  the  small  city  center,  and  moving  among  the 
farm  people  every  day,  is  a  community  factor  such  as 
never  existed  in  the  world  before. 

It  is  well  that  this  system  of  communication  should 
also  center  at  the  place  where  the  farmer  has  his 
church,  school  and  trade  center.  In  some  cases  this 
is  very  difficult  to  bring  about,  since  a  farm  home 
whose  occupants  have  a  certain  small  city  as  their 
common  center  may  be  more  conveniently  placed  on 
a  route  out  from  some  other  post  office.  It  is  very 
distressing  to  meet  a  man  in  his  town  center,  at  a 
church,  lodge,  or  cooperative  meeting  and  to  have  him 
tell  you  that  he  is  a  citizen  of  that  community  and 
a  member  of  organizations  there;  and  upon  later  ad- 
dressing him  at  that  place  to  have  the  letter  fail  to 
reach  him  because  the  Post  Office  Department  has 
found  it  more  convenient  to  place  him  on  a  rural  route 
out  from  some  other  center.  For  example,  no  mat- 
ter how  well  you  are  acquainted  with  "Mr.  Harris 
of  Smithtown,"  the  Post  Office  Department  knows  no 
such  person,  but  persists  that  there  is  a  "Mr.  Harris 
of  Jonesville,  Rural  Route  3." 


130  Rural  Organisation 

While  often  this  cannot  be  avoided,  yet  frequently 
through  strong  influence  of  a  community  organization 
adjustments  can  be  made  in  rural  routes,  so  that  a 
larger  number  of  the  people  of  the  same  community 
may  be  served  from  their  own  town  center. 

Community  Interest  in  Roads      * 

Roads  also  form  arteries  of  communication,  and 
there  is  a  phase  of  their  building  and  maintenance 
which  is  peculiarly  a  community  function.  Often  the 
matter  of  rural  mail  delivery  just  referred  to  can  be 
greatly  facilitated  in  the  interests  of  local  solidarity, 
by  giving  attention  to  maintaining  good  roads.  While 
the  powers  of  different  governmental  units  differ  with 
regard  to  road  work,  yet  the  same  responsibility  and 
power  rests  with  every  community  in  the  last  analysis 
to  look  into  the  condition  of  its  own  roads.  Fre- 
quently the  Post  Office  Department  has  found  it  neces- 
sary to  discontinue  the  service  entirely  from  a  rural 
route  where  the  people  take  no  interest  in  keeping  the 
roads  in  good  condition.  Again,  it  is  an  advantage 
to  a  rural  community  to  be  on  one  of  the  great  public, 
marked  automobile  highways;  and  many  instances  are 
on  record  where  a  locality  has  lost  this  advantage  by 
refusing  to  use  influence  and  effort  to  keep  the  high- 
way in  good  condition,  while  a  neighboring  place  has 
swung  the  road  through  its  area  by  giving  attention 
to  maintaining  a  smooth-surfaced  road  which  travelers 


Communication  and  Transportation          131 

soon  found  and  traversed  in  preference  to  the  road 
through  the  negligent  community. 

It  is  sometimes  charged  that  merchants  wish  the 
farmers  to  build  good  roads  to  town  in  order  that 
the  merchants  may  secure  more  trade;  that  tourists 
wish  the  local  people  taxed  for  good  roads  in  order 
that  the  tourists  may  ride  in  greater  comfort,  etc. 
When  transportation  is  looked  upon  as  a  community 
function,  and  the  importance  is  seen  of  keeping  the 
larger  local  area  unified  and  in  proper  relations  to  the 
outside  world,  such  charges  and  countercharges  dis- 
appear. Very  clearly,  then,  it  is  the  duty  of  all  citi- 
zens in  a  local  community  to  organize  effectively  to 
bring  about  the  very  best  possible  means  of  perform- 
ing the  function  of  communication  and  transportation. 

TYPICAL   ORGANIZATIONS    AND    PROJECTS 

Mutual  Telephone  Company 

The  mutual  telephone  company  ordinarily  starts  as 
a  neighborhood  affair,  and  becomes  community-wide 
by  the  consolidation  of  a  number  of  mutual  companies. 
Where  a  neighborhood  is  not  otherwise  served  by  this 
means  of  communication,  it  is  frequently  due  to  the 
fact  that  regularly  organized  companies  for  profit  do 
not  find  in  the  meager  support  which  the  small  num- 
ber of  families  would  promise,  sufficient  attraction  for 
the  investment  of  capital.  In  such  a  case  a  few  neigh- 


132  Rural  Organization 

bors  can  easily  share  the  initial  expense  for  materials, 
contribute  the  work  cooperatively,  pay  a  small  fee  each 
for  central  service  in  the  town  center,  and  attend  to 
repairs  either  by  cooperative  labor  or  a  small  assess- 
ment or  both. 

A  typical  Farmers'  Mutual  Telephone  Company  is 
that  owned  and  operated  by  a  group  of  thirteen  farm 
families  near  Frankfort,  Marshall  County,  Kansas.  It 
is  known  as  the  West  Fork  Telephone  Company,  and 
is  for  the  primary  purpose  of  supplying  telephone  serv- 
ice to  the  members.  In  the  beginning  of  this  company 
each  member  paid  $45  for  construction  purposes,  and 
since  that  time  each  has  paid  60  cents  a  month  for 
connection  with  the  Frankfort  exchange.  Service  is 
sold  to  non-members  at  a  monthly  rate  of  $1.50,  and 
thus  far  the  income  has  been  sufficient  for  mainte- 
nance. The  company  is  not  incorporated,  and  has 
called  meetings  whenever  there  is  business  to  transact. 
It  is  in  this  sense  a  strictly  neighborhood  affair.  The 
suggestion  has  been  made  that  the  situation  would  be 
improved  if  all  of  the  mutual  lines  around  the  com- 
mon center  should  merge,  possibly  conducting  a  cen- 
tral office  of  their  own.  However,  many  make  the 
objection  to  this  plan,  and  with  some  good  reason, 
that  this  would  destroy  the  "mutuality"  of  the  enter- 
prise, require  incorporation,  bring  the  service  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  State  Public  Utilities  Commis- 
sion, duplicate  service  in  the  small  city  center  and  in 
those  parts  of  the  community  where  there  were  no 
mutual  lines — and  generally  introduce  all  the  problems 


Communication  and  Transportation 

of  a  competitive  commercial  telephone  business.  The 
"neighborhood"  feature  seems  best  to  serve  the  pur- 
poses of  mutuality. 

Township  Road  Construction 

Roads  are  so  essentially  "cross-country"  proposi- 
tions that  much  of  the  agitation  for  "good  roads"  is 
necessarily  of  wider  than  community  interest.  From 
the  strictly  governmental  angle,  about  the  nearest  ap- 
proach that  many  states  have  to  a  means  of  develop- 
ing community  roads  is  through  the  township  govern- 
ment. However,  there  are  wide  differences  noted  in 
the  methods  and  results  in  different  townships,  and 
this  is  due  to  whether  the  citizens  look  upon  the  road 
work  as  a  drudgery  and  mere  means  of  making  money 
in  a  leisure  time,  or  as  a  privilege  and  a  duty  because 
of  community  pride.  The  most  satisfactory  plan  that 
has  yet  been  devised  under  the  township  system  is  for 
the  township  trustees  to  let  out,  on  bid,  the  entire  busi- 
ness of  grading  and  dragging  the  roads  for  which  the 
township  government  is  responsible;  specifying  in  the 
contract  the  exact  terms  by  which  the  roads  are  to 
be  maintained.  This  enables  the  contractor  to  keep  in 
employment  the  necessary  number  of  men  and  teams, 
and  to  use  and  care  for  continuously  the  grading  and 
dragging  equipment  which  may  be  owned  by  the  town- 
ship. It  also  makes  it  possible  for  every  resident  of 
the  township  to  place  the  responsibility  exactly  where 
it  belongs,  for  the  upkeep  of  roads.  Where  the  job  is 


134  Rural  Organisation 

"farmed  out"  to  people  who  live  along  the  road,  the 
good  results  of  the  other  plan  are  likely  to  be  lacking. 

Benefit  District  X 

In  the  construction  and  permanent  improvement  of 
the  roads  under  the  Federal  Good  Roads  Act,  the  near- 
est approach  to  community  action  which  is  possible  is 
under  the  "Benefit  District  Plan."  Where  it  seems  not 
to  be  practicable  for  a  county  to  take  the  necessary 
action,  the  people  of  a  number  of  communities,  co- 
operating, may  secure  action  which  will  benefit  them 
in  a  somewhat  local  degree.  The  method  of  procedure 
under  this  plan  in  a  typical  state  is  announced  as  fol- 
lows :  * 

1.  Designate  the  road  to  be  constructed,  which  must 
be  a  road  of  general  public  utility  and  connecting  mar- 
ket centers. 

2.  Lay  out,  by  metes  and  bounds,  the  Benefit  Dis- 
trict, showing  the  lands  owned  by  the  citizens  who 
are  presumed  to  petition  for  the  construction  of  the 
road.    The  size  of  the  proposed   Benefit  District  is 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  petitioners. 

3.  Prepare  the  petition,  according  to  legal  require- 
ments.   The  State  Highway  Commission  will  furnish 
blank  petitions  to  any  citizens  desiring  same.     Peti- 
tions may  call  for  a  choice  between  several  types  of 
roads  and  several  widths  of  roads,  leaving  the  final 
choice  and  the  number  of  assessments  for  the  payment 

*  Bulletin  of  Kansas  State  Highways  Commission. 


Communication  and  Transportation          135 

thereof  with  the  county  board,  subject  to  approval  of 
the  State  Highway  Commission.  The  petition,  after 
having  been  prepared,  should  be  forwarded  to  the 
Highway  Commission,  along  with  a  map  showing  the 
proposed  Benefit  District,  to  be  checked  over  before 
signatures  are  secured. 

4.  After  the  petition  has  been  circulated  among  the 
owners  of  the  land  in  the  Benefit  District,  it  should  be 
filed  with  the  board  of  county  commissioners.  It  is 
then  necessary  for  the  board  to  declare  the  construc- 
tion of  the  road  prayed  for  to  be  of  public  utility  be- 
fore making  application  to  the  State  Highway  Com- 
mission for  federal  aid.  Blank  forms  for  application 
for  federal  aid  will  be  furnished  by  the  Highway  Com- 
mission to  the  board  of  county  commissioners. 

Community  Road  Days  *** 

Where  there  is  no  opportunity  to  secure  funds  by 
taxation  for  the  improvement  of  a  particular  stretch  of 
road  that  is  of  importance  to  community  welfare,  much 
can  be  accomplished  by  the  inauguration  of  a  few 
"Community  Good  Roads  Days."  Such  a  movement 
at  Summerfield,  Kansas,  is  thus  described  by  a  local 
citizen,  Mr.  James  F.  Menehan: 

"Our  good  roads  movement  started  from  the  fact 
that  we  had  a  stretch  of  road  on  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
state  line,  about  ten  miles  in  length,  running  east  from 
Summerfield,  that  was  in  very  bad  condition,  a  part 
of  which  was  almost  impassable.  This  particular  piece 


136  Rural  Organisation 

of  road  had  been  neglected  by  both  states,  nothing  of 
any  consequence  having  been  done  in  the  way  of  road 
improvement  for  some  time.  Finally  our  citizens  de- 
cided that  from  a  business  standpoint  the  city  and  com- 
munity would  benefit  to  a  great  extent  were  this  road 
improved.  A  community  mass  meeting  was  advertised 
by  the  mayor  to  meet  in  the  city  on  a  certain  date  to 
discuss  plans  to  carry  out  the  work. 

"The  meeting  was  well  attended  and  an  organization 
formed  known  as  the  Interstate  Good  Roads  Associa- 
tion. All  the  details  of  the  work  were  arranged  for  at 
the  meeting  and  the  funds  necessary  to  defray  all  ex- 
pense were  contributed  by  the  community  interested 
in  the  road.  All  road  work  was  donated.  Committees 
were  appointed  to  arrange  for  the  different  details  such 
as  providing  the  necessary  tools,  men,  horses,  meals, 
amusements,  etc.  Dates  were  agreed  on  for  doing  the 
work. 

"When  the  time  came,  the  entire  community  turned' 
out  in  force — men  with  horses  and  road  tools  of  every 
description,  men  with  axes,  spades  and  shovels — and 
also  a  dynamite  squad  for  blasting  out  trees  and  stones 
and  stumps.  The  men  were  distributed  in  gangs  over 
the  entire  length  of  the  road,  each  gang  in  charge  of 
a  foreman  and  all  gangs  under  the  supervision  of  a 
general  superintendent.  A  large  tent  was  erected  cen- 
trally located  to  the  work  for  the  purpose  of  serving 
meals  for  the  men.  The  ladies  of  the  community  were 
out  in  force  to  serve  the  meals.  Each  evening  the  tent 


Communication  and  Transportation         137 

was  provided  with  seats  and  a  stage  and  entertainment 
furnished  for  the  large  crowds  in  attendance.  Amuse- 
ments consisted  of  music  and  a  variety  of  entertain- 
ment; also  some  very  prominent  speakers  from  each 
state  to  preach  the  gospel  of  good  roads. 

"The  boards  of  county  commissioners  of  the  adjoin- 
ing counties  were  on  the  ground  also  and  arranged  for 
building  $10,000  worth  of  cement  bridges,  which  were 
all  built  during  that  year  (1917). 

"Taken  as  a  whole  the  movement  was  a  grand  suc- 
cess from  the  standpoint  of  road  improvement.  The 
value  of  the  work  done  by  the  community  and  as  an 
immediate  result  later  by  the  counties  would  amount  to 
$15,000." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Distinguish  between  individual  interest  and  community  in- 

terest in  roads. 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  the  rural  telephone  in 

relation  to  modern  rural  organizations? 

3.  Why  is  a  unified  telephone  system  desirable  for  the  com- 

munity? 

4.  Distinguish  between  a  mutual  telephone  company  and  a  cor- 

porate or  independent  line. 

5.  Why  is  it  advantageous  for  the  farmer  to  be  on  a  rural 

mail  route  out  from  the  town  which  is  also  his  center  for 
other  activities? 

6.  Is  it  more  to  the  interest  of  merchants  or  of  farmers,  to 

have  good  roads? 

7.  What  is  the  best  system  of  road  maintenance  by  a  local 

unit  such  as  a  township? 

8.  Describe  a  "Community  Road  Day"  program. 


138  Rural  Organisation 

RESEARCH  PROBLEMS 

1.  What  is  the  system  of  organization  for  telephone  service  in 

this    community:    Corporation?      Independent?      Mutual? 
Cooperative? 

2.  Is  the  entire  community  served  by  one  system? 

3.  Is  the  rate  charged  sufficient  to  maintain  good  service? 

4.  How  could  the  service  be  improved? 

5.  Is  the  rural  mail  delivery  system  effectively  organized? 

6.  Do  the  routes  as  arranged  properly  serve  the  people  of  the 

entire  agricultural  community? 

7.  How  may  the  people  better  cooperate  with  the  carriers  for 

better  service? 

8.  Are  the  roads  of  this  community  up  to  standard?     What 

ones  need  special  attention?     In  what  way? 

9.  What  is  the  prevailing  system  of  road  maintenance?    Who 

drag  the  roads  and  with  what  efficiency,  and  at  what  cost? 

10.  How  may  this  community  best  cooperate  with  government — 

county,  state  and  federal — in  securing  good  roads? 

11.  For  emergency  service,  would  "community  road  days"  be 

helpful? 


PART  III 
COMMUNITY  SOCIAL  FUNCTIONS 


INTRODUCTION 

"A  HAPPY  COMMUNITY"  is  the  goal  of  life  activities. 
No  man  ever  dreamed  of  a  happy  situation  which  did 
not  have  in  it  the  idea  of  relationship.  Even  the  sav- 
age would  have  found  no  anticipatory  pleasures  in  a 
happy  hunting  ground  where  he  would  be  the  only 
hunter.  The  ancients  pictured  their  future  places  of 
abode  as  holding  for  them  the  extreme  of  what  they 
considered  the  most  satisfying  social  relationships. 
The  Christian  believes  in  the  "communion  of  the 
saints" — a  communion  which  he  expects  to  have  per- 
fected elsewhere  in  the  hereafter.  "The  Happy  Com- 
munity" is  the  goal  of  them  all. 

To  make  the  rural  community  a  happier  place  in 
which  to  live  is  the  real  goal  of  present-day  com- 
munity life.  There  is  a  certain  enjoyment,  to  be  sure, 
in  working  together,  performing  economic  functions. 
These  in  themselves,  however,  are  not  final,  but  prin- 
cipally that  the  community  may  be  able  to  perform 
those  functions  that  make  for  living  more  happily  to- 
gether. We  have  taken  the  word  "social"  out  of  its 
old  restricted  meaning,  and  have  made  it  apply  to  all 
the  human  relationships ;  so  "social  functions"  may 
be  made  to  refer  to  the  functions  which  a  community 
performs  in  the  realm  of  those  activities  which  make 
for  happy  living. 


CHAPTER  I 

EDUCATION 

Growth  from  Individual  to  Community  Responsibility 

IN  the  old,  individualistic  period,  a  man  who  could 
afford  to  educate  his  children  employed  a  tutor.  His 
children  were  thus  made  superior  in  knowledge  to 
those  who  had  a  less  advantage  of  wealth.  Since 
wealthjmd  education  vggnj^together^jind  wealth  also 
provided  for  leisure,  ^du^jtiojoJigLldsjir^_were com- 
papions.  Only  a  few  individuals  of  the  leisure  class 
could  enjoy  the  educational  pursuits.  Among  our  own 
American  pioneers,  the  spirit  of  cooperation  which 
already  was  beginning  to  appear,  suggested  the  possi- 
bility that  a  few  families,  even  of  moderate  means, 
might  assemble  their  children  under  one  roof,  unite 
their  money  and  their  facilities,  and  employ  a  school- 
master. Education  then  became  a  cooperative  function 
among  families.  Since  each  family  had  a  home  where 
there  were  more  or  less  adequate  sleeping  quarters, 
and  where  food  was  abundant,  the  schoolmaster 
"boarded  around" — each  family  having  children  in  the 
school  providing  its  share  of  this  "housing  and  feed- 
ing" part  of  the  teacher's  pay.  The  "district  school" 


144  Rural  Organisation 

is  the  development  of  this  cooperative  family  idea  of 
education. 

But  later  we  came  to  realize  that  the  business  of 
the  school  is_tp^educate  ;  nqt_only  the  children  of  cer- 
tain families  who  want  ednratpf^  rViilHrpn,  hiit  tr>  HP- 
ritiypnship  $p  attendance  upon  the 


district  school  became  compulsory,  in  a  continually 
increasing  number  of  states,  and  the  burden  of  finan- 
cial maintenance  was  placed  upon  the  property  of  all 
the  people  of  the  district,  whether  they  had  children 
in  the  school  or  not.  To  divide  the  state  into  legal 
units  called  school  districts,  and  provide  compulsory 
means  for  these  units  to  conduct  their  own  schools, 
was  a  recognition  of  the  fact  that  education  w  a  com- 
munity function. 

Developing  a  "School  Community" 

As  pioneer  days  passed  away,  and  people  came  to 
take  stock  of  the  larger  community  interests,  it  was 
realized  that  these  districts  did  not  in  any  sense  fol- 
low community  lines.  Cooperative  organizations  found 
the  school  district  too  small  as  a  unit  of  cooperation, 
and  quickly  crossed  such  district  lines  and  undertook 
to  embrace  all  the  area  in  which  there  were  common 
interests.  Churches,  lodges,  business  organizations, 
and  all,  began  to  recognize  the  larger  and  more  natu- 
ral unit.  With  the  coming  of  the  automobiler  this-ten-^ 
dency  to  recognize  the  larger  area  as  one  community 

was  grpatlyprm>ha^i7pff    With  this  rpndjjjfrn  jt 


Education  145 

the  district  school  begins  to  fail,  because,  although  its 
development  was  a  recognition  that  education  is  a 
community  function,  it  does  not  have  a  community 
scope  in  the  new  order  of  things,  and  therefore  does 
not  permit  the  larger  community  to  function  educa- 
tionally. The  school  district  offends  the  "size"  and 
"unity"  requirements  of  a  rural  community  of  the 
present  day.  It  does  not  conform  to  the  size  of  the 
community,  and  is  a  dividing  influence  rather  than  a 
uniting  influence.  It  is  therefore  doomed  in  the  natu- 
ral order  of  things.  The  consolidated  school  is  not 
introduced  as  a  mere  theory  of  leaders  as  one  way  to 
correct  the  inefficiency  of  the  district  school;  it  is  the 
"next  step"  in  the  natural  evolution  of  a  social  com- 
munity. Thela££gr_ODrnrminity  has  mriv 
education_is_a  function  of  any  fiftmmnnity, 

commumt^jgs_£L^ 

ally.  The  enemies  ofjialiir^l  prngrp$s-mqy  npppgp  jkig 
tendency^  for  a  little  while,  and  may  slightly  retard  jts 
development,  butthey  can  no  more,  prevent  it  than 
jthey  can  prevenLjhe_jiatural  movement  of  the  stars  in 
their  courses,  or  any  other  procjp^  that 


A  Complete  "Community  School" 

Since  education  is  a  community^function,  then  it 
^ecomes~fhe~3uty  of  tlie^cqmmunity  to  educate  all  its 
people.  We  are,  of  course,  dealing  with  that  educa- 
tion which  is  considered  indispensable  for  happy  citi- 


146  Rural  Organisation 

zenship  and  below  the  grade  of  specialized  education 
for  trained  leadership,  such  as  colleges  and  universities 
offer.  "Reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic"  were  at  one 
time  considered  the  only  prerequisites  for  adult  success 
for  the  ordinary  individual.  But  in  this  day  a  high 
school  education  is  recognized  as  a  very  desirable  if 
not  absolutely  necessary  training  for  good  citizenship. 
Since  this  standard  has  been  generally  accepted,  the 
community  which  does  not  offer  such  an  education  is 
not  adequately  performing  this  community  function. 
The  appearance  of  the  "Rural  High  School"  or  of  the 
"Community  High  School" — under  whatever  name  it 
is  known  in  any  state — is  due  to  this  demand  that  the 
community  shall  function  in  giving  a  complete  educa- 
tion for  community  service. 

Mutual  Service  of  School  and  Community 

There  is  coming  to  be  here  a  definite  relationship 
recognized  between  the  community  economic  function 
and  the  community  educational  function.  Clearly  edu- 
cation is  to  continue  to  cost  more  money.  This  money 
must  be  secured  through  the  development  of  economic 
functions.  It  is  true  that  the  tendency  is  also  for  the 
states  and  the  federal  government  to  aid  local  schools, 
but  this  is  frequently  on  a  cooperative  basis,  for  new 
branches  undertaken,  and  in  itself  it  requires  a  larger 
local  investment.  The__questk»n_ -may__w:ell  .be  asked,, 
"How  can  the_ru£aj__O)rnniunity  stand  the  drain  that 
is  to  be  Inadeuppn  its  resources  by  the  constantly 


Education  147 

increasing  demand  for  local  ^duration?"  Aside  from 
the  possibilities  of  federal  and  state  aid,  it  is  clear 
that  a  leading  part  of  the  education  itself  shall  be  of 
such  a  nature  as  to  result  in  the  increase  of  the  wealth 
of  the  community,  a  percentage  of  which  increase  may 
then  be  properly  expended  again  on  a  still  more  im- 
proved local  school  system. 

The  farmers  have  a  right  to  demand  that  the  "rural 
high  school"  or  "community  high  school"  shall  have 
this  practical  effect.  If  it  does  have  this  effect,  edu- 
cators have  an  equal  right  to  demand  that  the  new 
wealth  register  in  terms  of  a  better  school. 

A  certain  region  used  to  be  noted  for  its  long- 
horned  Texas  steers;  an  instructor  in  agriculture  in 
the  Rural  High  School  undertook  project  work  with 
the  young  men  in  beginning  herds  of  purebred  Here- 
fords  ;  the  Hereford  herd  now_grazes__c>Yer-  ihe-same 
pasture  formerly  consumed  by  the ...lean_Texas  steers. 
The^added  wealth  in _that_casje_is  the  direct  E€&«lt-  o f 
thejr^w_typc_of_schgol  work.  A  considerable  percent- 
age  of  the  increased  value  of  that  herd_belongs__ta_the 
school. 

A  farmer  purchased  a  tractor;  it  "went  dead"  in 
the  field;  he  'phoned  to  town  for  a  repair  man;  the 
trip  out  and  back  and  the  time  occupied  in  the  repair 
work  cost  him  five  dollars;  the  delay  in  his  work  in 
the  field  also  registered  a  cost  account.  Suppose  now 
that  the  new  farmer  (the  farmer's  son)  has  fallen 
heir  to  the  place;  the  Rural  High  School  has  given 
him  Farm  Shop  Practice,  and  the  rudiments  of  work 


148  Rural  Organization 

in  Tractors  and  Farm  Mechanics;  the  tractor  "goes 
dead"  in  the  field;  he  knows  where  the  trouble  is,  and 
remedies  it  in  a  short  time.  How  much  of  the  five 
dollars,  plus  the  value  of  his  own  time  in  waiting 
(saved  to  him  because  of  the  practical  knowledge  given 
by  the  Community  School)  should  go  back  to  the 
school  in  part  payment  for  this  knowledge? 

It  is  argued  that  for  a  community  to  exercise  the 
educational  function  to  train  for  community  service 
would  be  to  narrow  and  provincialize  the  student,  en- 
slaving him  to  a  career  for  which  that  community  is 
prepared  to  train  him.  This  would  be  true  if  such 
training  were  all  that  would  be  offered;  but  we  are 
supposing  the  general  ground-work  of  a  common 
school  education  is  the  least  that  the  community  can 
do,  and  this  education  for  community  service  to  be 
added  to  the  least  requirements.  Also,  no  one  can  truly 
measure  the  real  cultural  results  to  be  gained  from 
any  kind  of  specialized  industrial  education.  At  any 
rate,  it  seems  clear  that  the  community  is  justified  in 
exercising  its  educational  function  beyond  the  grades 
mainly  for  that  sort  of  training  that  will  best  prepare 
for  citizenship  in  that  community,  or  in  another  one 
essentially  like  it. 

Community  School  Preserves  Solidarity 

The  "Rural"  or  "Community"  High  School  is  nec- 
essary algj)^Q^reserv.e^ihe_jinity  or  solidarity  of  the 
community.  Under  natural  conditions,  a  community 


Education  ',        149 

is  made  up  of  men  and  women,  youths,  and  boys  and 
girls.  In  other  words,  it  is  an  association  of  families 
comprising  persons  at  these  different  periods  in  life. 
This  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  community  life  be 
well  balanced.  But  with  the  coming  of  the  demand  for 
a  high  school  education,  where  the  community  does 
not  meet  the  demand  adequately,  those  persons  who 
are  between  the  ages  of  approximately  fourteen  and 
nineteen  must  leave  it,  thus  robbing  it  of  one  of  its 
component  parts,  and  so  destroying  the  unity.  This 
lack  of  persons  at  this  period  in  life  often  registers 
in  a  dearth  of  social  life,  the  premature  aging  of  the 
elder  people,  the  bringing  in  of  hired  men  to  do  the 
work  that  the  farm  boy  and  girl  would  have  done, 
and  the  making  of  such  a  gap  between  the  little  chil- 
dren and  their  elders  that  the  former  cannot  easily 
pass  over.  In  a  day  when  one's  education  is  not  con- 
sidered complete  for  ordinary  life  success  without  four 
years  in  the  high  school,  local  solidarity  demands  that 
the  community  supply  such  an  institution.  If  it  fails 
in  performing  this  function,  it  robs  itself  of  such  a 
vital  factor  that  in  a  few  years  its  weakened  condition 
from  this  cause  alone  will  place  it  among  those  usually 
spoken  of  as  "dead  communities." 

Organised  Education  for  Adults 

But  education  of  children  and  of  youths  is  not  the 
limit  of  this  function  for  the  rural  community.  While 
agriculture  and  home  making  are  the  oldest  of  civil- 


150  Rural  Organization 

ized  callings,  yet  they  ever  present  new  problems  and 
new  possibilities.  People  are  coming  to  understand 
that  education  is  never  "finished,"  and  that  to  "grow 
old"  is  just  to  lose  the  capacity  to  learn  new  things. 
Without  the  opportunity  to  learn  new  things,  of  course 
one  may  lose  the  capacity.  Also,  since  we  understand 
that  the  community  as  well  as  an  individual  is  subject 
to  the  laws  of  evolution,  we  know  that  what  knowledge 
we  acquire  to-day  as  to  how  we  may  further  develop 
the  community  may  be  fearfully  out  of  date  to-mor- 
row. "Rural  civics"  must  not  be  confined  to  the  school 
alone.  Then  there  is  that  vast  fund  of  knowledge  of 
current  history,  politics,  art  treasure,  etc.,  which  makes 
a  community  realize  its  oneness  with  the  outside  world, 
and  the  study  of  which  takes  away  the  irksomeness 
of  working  life  and  provides  the  highest  means  of 
social  enjoyment.  This  all  means  education  for  adults. 
"Extension  education"  may  well  signify  not  only 
the  fact  that  education  may  "extend"  out  from  the 
college  or  university  to  the  community,  but  also  that 
it  must  extend  beyond  the  school  age  and  on  through 
all  the  adult  age  in  the  community.  "The  forum,"  the 
"community  center  meetings,"  the  "community  short 
course,"  the  "community  institute,"  the  "agricultural 
extension  school,"  the  "home  economics  extension 
school" — all  of  these  popular  projects  for  and  in  the 
local  community  are  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the 
community  is  to  perform  the  function  of  education 
for  adults  as  well  as  for  children,  and  that  the  prin- 


Education  151 

cipal  purpose  of  this  function  is  happier  and  more  suc- 
cessful living  together  in  the  community. 

TYPICAL   ORGANIZATIONS    AND    PROJECTS 

Conducting  an  Agricultural  Community  School 
Campaign 

The  experience  of  the  last  few  years  has  taught 
certain  lessons  with  regard  to  successful  methods  of 
organizing  and  developing  a  campaign  for  any  new 
type  of  agricultural  community  school,  such  as  a  con- 
solidated or  rural  high  school.  At  the  beginning  we 
were  experimenting,  but  we  have  now  the  record  of 
a  large  number  of  organizations  consummated,  with  a 
small  number  of  cases  where  such  campaigns  have 
failed.  We  recognize  that  many  of  the  causes  for  suc- 
cess and  for  failure  can  now  be  known,  to  the  profit 
of  communities  contemplating  the  securing  of  a  new 
type  of  school. 

The  campaign  should  be  launched  by  an  influential 
local  group.  If  the  leaders  of  some  local  organization 
or  institution  first  get  the  desire  for  such  a  develop- 
ment, they  will  be  wise  to  consider  to  what  extent  their 
leadership  or  the  leadership  of  their  group  will  be 
effective  in  securing  that  following  which  will  put  the 
proposition  across.  That  type  of  case  is  on  record 
where  such  a  plan  would  really  have  been  acceptable 
to  the  citizens  if  it  had  been  sponsored  by  right  leader- 


152  Rural  Organisation 

ship,  but  has  been  defeated  by  people  who  would  rather 
be  deprived  of  the  results  of  a  good  measure  than  to 
follow  uncongenial  or  irresponsible  leadership.  In  fact, 
except  in  unusual  cases,  the  group  in  charge  of  this 
forward  movement  should  be  representative  of  all 
the  organized  groups  of  the  community,  so  that  the 
action  may  not  seem  to  be  an  attempt  of  any  one  fac- 
tion to  secure  added  advantage  for  their  own  organi- 
zation or  institution. 

Since  the  launching  of  such  a  campaign  is  ordinarily 
left  to  the  discretion  of  any  person  or  agency,  it  is 
best  for  the  ones  who  originate  the  idea  locally  to 
move  slowly  until  they  see  to  it  that  every  possible 
organization  is  represented  in  the  leadership  of  the 
campaign.  When  this  has  been  accomplished,  it  will 
be  time  to  announce  the  plan  and  begin  the  campaign 
work  itself. 

The  campaign  must  be  made  entirely  educational. 
For  this  reason,  those  interested  in  furthering  it  must 
remember  that  there  is  an  element  of  time  involved. 
Merely  because  a  law  specifies  how  many  days  must 
elapse  between  the  official  launching  of  the  plan  and 
the  final  election  of  a  board,  it  does  not  follow  that 
the  entire  program  can  or  should  be  put  through  in 
a  brief  period.  It  is  desirable  that  the  vote  on  the 
establishment  of  the  new  district  shall  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  unanimous,  and  in  order  to  secure  this  result 
time  must  be  taken  to  let  all  of  the  people  understand 
thoroughly  every  phase  of  the  project.  There  have 
been  cases  where  energetic  leaders  have  made  a  "drive," 


Education  153 

and  put  the  project  across  by  a  majority  of  a  few 
votes — and  with  such  a  vigorous  feeling  of  opposi- 
tion generated  in  the  large  minority  that  the  minority 
has  easily  become  a  majority  in  the  election  of  the 
board,  and  elected  members  who  were  pledged  to  bring 
about  conditions  in  which  the  new  plan  would  prove 
unsuccessful.  There  are  also  a  few  cases  where  the 
campaign  has  been  lost  in  such  a  rapid-fire  drive,  and 
left  in  the_community  animosities  that  it  would  take 
a  generation  of  time  to  heal.  The  community  has  been 
for  so  many  years  without  the  new  type  of  school,  that 
a  full  year  of  time  ought  not  to  be  considered  too  long 
in  which  to  win  the  people  to  the  proposition. 

In  conducting  such  an  educational  campaign,  much 
assistance  is  available  from  the  outside.  Literature 
bearing  on  such  a  program  is  published  by  the  federal 
government  and  by  institutions  and  departments  in 
various  states.  It  may  be  secured  by  applying  to  the 
State  Agricultural  College.  The  local  committee  should 
use  it  judiciously,  placing  it  with  those  parties  who 
most  need  information  on  the  subject,  and  who  will 
carefully  study  the  contents.  It  is  well  to  send  such 
literature  out  from  the  local  committee  in  a  regular 
"follow-up"  system — the  bulletins  Being  timed  so  as 
to  allow  enough  time  to  elapse  between  bulletins  so 
that  the  individual  may  be  able  to  read  each  carefully 
and  be  ready  for  more. 

Another  feature  of  such  a  regular  educational  cam- 
paign will  be  meetings  conducted  in  various  parts  of 
the  community,  at  different  times  during  the  year,  for 


154  Rural  Organisation 

the  discussion  of  the  project.  These  meetings  will  be 
in  country  schoolhouses,  as  well  as  in  the  town  center. 
Their  spirit  will  be  that  of  careful  searching  into  the 
feasibility  of  the  plan,  rather  than  of  impetuously  driv- 
ing the  plan  through.  In  many  cases  the  program  will 
take  the  form  of  a  debate,  both  sides  of  the  question 
being  presented  by  local  talent.  Where  this  is  done, 
all  possible  facilities  should  be  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  both  sides  to  secure  the  very  best  facts  for  the 
support  of  arguments  for  and  against.  In  this  way 
the  public  will  be  educated  beyond  that  which  would 
be  possible  if  the  debate  were  founded  merely  upon 
arguments  that  would  be  brought  forward  out  of  per- 
sonal prejudice.  In  such  a  debate  there  should  be  no 
judges  and  no  decision,  since  such  action  might  be 
taken  as  a  precedent  of  the  voicing  of  the  will  of  the 
community.  Sometimes  a  supporter  or  an  opposer  of 
such  a  movement  will,  if  he  thinks  a  majority  of  his 
side  present,  call  for  a  vote  of  the  meeting,  by  the 
result  of  which  he  intends  to  further  sway  the  general 
public  opinion.  Of  course  such  an  acclamation  vote 
would  signify  very  little,  since  it  would  not  be  known 
what  representatives  of  community  opinion  were  there 
— and  yet  it  might  further  confuse  the  situation.  Vot- 
ing and  decisions  should  be  left  until  the  time  of  the 
official  ballot. 

A  speaker  may  usually  be  secured  from  any  educa- 
tional institution  or  department  of  the  state.  Such  a 
speaker  should  not  be  expected  to  come  in  toward  the 
last  of  a  brief  campaign,  and  bear  the  burden  of  lead- 


Education  155 

ing  a  fight  for  the  project.  The  struggle  belongs  to 
the  local  community,  and  must  finally  be  decided  there. 
The  cost  of  the  bonds  for  the  building  and  of  the  tax 
levy  for  maintenance  will  be  entirely  upon  the  local 
people,  and  the  right  sort  of  a  man  from  the  outside 
feels  a  justified  reticence  about  using  emotional  cam- 
paign methods  in  leading  a  fight  to  impose  a  financial 
responsibility  of  which  he  himself  is  to  bear  no  part. 
Such  a  speaker  should  be  expected  to  have  at  his  dis- 
posal all  of  the  facts  with  regard  to  similar  movements 
elsewhere  throughout  the  nation,  should  understand 
the  legal  factors  involved,  and  should  have  been  given 
the  results  of  local  investigations  as  to  the  feasibility 
of  the  immediate  project  proposed.  The  people  who 
assemble  to  hear  such  a  speaker  should  be  encouraged 
to  ask  questions;  especially  should  the  opposition 
forces  be  urged  to  attend  and  present  their  objections. 
The  speaker  will  then  merely  present  the  plan,  and 
the  known  facts  with  regard  to  its  operation,  and  an- 
swer the  questions  which  are  puzzling  those  who  are 
undecided  in  the  matter. 

While  the  work  itself  must  be  done  by  a  commit- 
tee small  in  numbers,  it  is  essential  that  at  every  stage 
the  public  should  be  consulted.  In  first  mapping  out 
the  district,  where  the  boundary  question  is  to  be  in- 
cluded in  matters  submitted  to  vote,  it  is  best  to  secure 
opinions  as  widely  as  possible  concerning  the  real  boun- 
dary lines  of  the  community.  In  some  cases  very  in- 
teresting public  meetings  have  been  held  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  this  matter  alone.  Usually,  however,  it  is 


156  Rural  Organisation 

best  for  the  small  committee  to  invite  for  conference 
with  them  the  key  persons  of  the  community,  to  go 
over  carefully  together  a  map  of  the  area,  and  sug- 
gest the  boundary  lines  of  the  new  unit.  The  fact  of 
the  particular  area  covered  will  have  a  definite  bear- 
ing upon  the  success  or  failure  of  the  campaign.  If 
the  area  proposed  offends  the  best  judgment  of  the 
people  of  a  considerable  portion  to  be  included,  their 
solid  vote  may  be  sufficient  to  defeat  the  measure.  On 
the  other  hand,  portions  should  not  be  left  out  merely 
because  a  person  here  and  there  has  expressed  him- 
self as  opposed  to  the  project.  Judicious  action  on 
the  part  of  the  committee  will  avoid  serious  error  on 
either  side  of  this  dilemma. 

Care  and  thoroughness  should  be  exercised  in  cir- 
culating the  petition,  where  the  law  requires  that  form 
of  procedure.  Ordinarily,  it  is  not  best  to  present  it 
in  a  wholesale  fashion  as  at  a  public  sale  or  a  com- 
munity fair.  House  to  house  visition  makes  the  whole 
matter  take  on  a  more  serious  aspect.  Hand-picked 
fruit  is  best.  A  great  deal  of  diplomacy  may  also  be 
used  in  choosing  the  personnel  of  the  solicitors.  A 
considerable  percentage  of  property  owners  who  will 
bear  a  large  part  of  the  tax  burden  will  have  especially 
good  influence  in  securing  signers.  Professional  peo- 
ple on  salary  paid  by  the  community,  such  as  minis- 
ters and  teachers,  would  best  be  excused  from  serving 
in  this  capacity.  Of  course  the  committee  will  be 
wise  enough  to  see  the  importance  of  choosing  care- 
fully those  who  are  to  see  certain  definite  persons 


Education  157 

whose  signatures  could  not  be  secured  by  any  other  than 
such  chosen  ones.  It  is  best  to  let  successful  merchants 
and  bankers  see  the  town  people,  and  successful  farm- 
ers see  the  country  people.  In  no  case  must  the  charge 
that  one  section  is  interested  in  "putting  one  over"  on 
the  other  section  be  given  a  semblance  of  fact. 

While  in  the  case  of  a  petition  for  the  creation  of 
a  new  district  the  law  requires  that  the  signatures  of 
only  a  small  percentage  of  the  voters  of  the  proposed 
district  be  secured  in  the  petition,  the  best  plan  is  to 
canvass  the  entire  district,  and  secure  as  many  signa- 
tures as  possible.  There  is  no  better  way  to  awaken 
public  interest  in  the  project  than  for  two  neighbors 
to  call  upon  a  voter  personally,  and  explain  the  whole 
matter  to  him,  answer  his  questions,  and  meet  his 
objections,  and  secure  his  active  cooperation.  Beyond 
the  educational  value  of  this  process  is  the  added  ad- 
vantage that  when  a  man  has  agreed  to  support  such 
a  proposition,  his  mind  is  a  little  more  thoroughly 
made  up  at  the  time  of  the  election,  and  a  counter- 
campaign  will  not  easily  sway  him. 

When  the  election  has  been  carried,  creating  the 
district  and  voting  the  bonds  if  a  building  is  to  be 
erected,  the  work  of  the  campaign  has  not  yet  ceased. 
This  is  a  new  venture,  in  which  the  community  is  in- 
vesting not  only  its  money,  but  its  human  values.  The 
position  as  member  of  the  school  board  is  a  very  im- 
portant one  under  any  conditions,  but  especially  so  in 
this  new  type  of  school,  and  with  the  election  of  the 
first  board.  Persons  should  be  chosen  who  have  the 


158  Rural  Organization 

right  combination  of  progressive  ideas  and  conserva- 
tive judgment.  They  should  also  be  representative  of 
the  various  elements  in  the  community,  in  so  far  as 
possible.  The  board  should  not  be  made  up  in  such 
a  way  that  the  farmers,  for  example,  will  feel  that  the 
town  people  are  running  the  school.  If  persons  who 
have,  because  of  their  very  commendable  and  advanced 
attitude  in  fighting  for  the  project,  secured  the  ill-will 
of  a  large  minority,  find  that  such  ill-will  might  unfit 
them  to  serve  all  alike,  they  should  wisely  join  in  elect- 
ing to  these  offices  acceptable  persons  who  may  not 
have  been  such  leaders  in  the  contest,  but  who  are  en- 
tirely favorable  to  the  school,  and  who  will  have  the 
confidence  and  support  of  all  factions. 

Too  much  must  not  be  promised  for,  nor  expected 
of,  the  new  school  at  the  start.  It  will  be  best  to  let 
the  various  departments  and  activities  grow  as  the 
vision  of  the  community  develops.  Small  beginnings 
and  progressive  developments  are  better  than  big  be- 
ginnings and  successive  failures.  Yet  error  must  not 
be  made  on  the  side  of  failing  to  make  the  new  school 
prove  its  advantage  over  the  old  in  the  first  year— 
because  the  American  people  expect  results  to  be  im- 
mediate, and  are  not  patient  with  a  venture  which 
does  not  soon  produce  them  in  noticeable,  if  not  spec- 
tacular, form. 

One  of  the  best  ways  in  which  to  capture  the  imag- 
ination  and  the  approval  of  the  people  is  bv  inauffurat- 
ing,  as  soon  as  the  school  is  organized  and  running 
smoothly,  an  intensiyg_juid  extensive  community --pre- 


Education  159 

gram  with  the  newjscjio.0!  as  th^  renter.   By  bringing 
the  people  together  frequently  for  entfrtainmpntST-so- 
cial  evenings,  lectures,_and_thfi  Me,  the  advantages_pf 
the~auditorium  as  a  meeting  place  for  all  of  the  people 
will  be  impressed  upon  tfiem!    They  will  wonder  how 
they  ever  lived  in  a  community  that  did  not  have  a 
room  large  enough  to  accommodate  an  assemblage  of 
all  the  people;  and  they  will  be  ready,  because  of  their 
realization  of  the  advancement  which  they  have  made, 
to  take  whatever  next  step  is  necessary  to  make  fur- 
ther progress.    The  athletic  contests  and  games  in  the 
gymnasium,  starting  with  enthusiasm  at  the  very  be- 
ginning of  the  first  year  of  the  school,  will  bring  the 
people  together  for  a  sort  of  enjoyment  which  they 
have  not  before  known  in  their  own  community,  and 
will  further  emphasize  the  fact  that  they  have  made 
a  tremendous  gain  in  securing  for  themselves  this  new 
institution.    An  agricultural  extension  school  of  three 
or  four  days,  for  the  farmers,  with  the  free  use  of 
the  building  and  its  equipment ;  and  a  home  economics 
extension  school  for  the  women,  with  the  use  of  the 
sewing  room  and  the  domestic  science  department — 
these  will  prove  ready  means  of  demonstrating  that 
the  institution  is  for  all  the  people  of  the  agricultural 
community.     A  room  or  even  a  corner  of  a  hallway 
may  well  be  fitted  up  with  a  desk  and  a  bulletin  file 
for  the  Farm  Bureau  committee,  where  they  may  feel 
that  they  have  headquarters  locally;  and  here  it  will 
be  well  for  the  county  agent  to  call  whenever  he  arrives 
in  the  community,  to  meet  clients  by  appointment,  and 


160  Rural  Organisation 

see  that  a  good  supply  of  farm  and  community  bulle- 
tins is  on  hand. 

Where  the  domestic  science  work  has  not  been  popu- 
lar, the  extension  of  the  campaign  to  develop  further 
this  department  has  in  some  cases  been  aided  greatly 
by  having  the  class  serve  a  hot  lunch  at  noon,  at  cost, 
to  students  and  to  patrons  who  find  it  convenient  to 
get  lunch  at  the  school  while  in  town.  The  practical 
nature  of  the  work  done  by  the  school  can  be  demon- 
strated in  this  way  much  more  conclusively  than  by 
merely  talking  of  it. 

Where  the  manual  training  work  has  been  developed 
toward  the  beginnings  of  a  farm  shop  practice  depart- 
ment, much  favorable  interest  has  been  won  for  the 
school  by  making  that  department  useful  to  the  farm- 
ers in  the  district  in  the  repair  of  their  own  machin- 
ery. By  such  methods,  it  is  possible  to  continue  the 
campaign  successfully  for  a  constantly  improving  agri- 
cultural community  school. 

It  is  well  to  make  the  new  district  a  complete  and 
unified  community  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Where  con- 
ditions are  favorable  for  such  development,  it  will  be- 
come readily  the  accepted  area  for  the  transacting  of 
all  sorts  of  business.  It  will  become  naturally  the  area 
from  which  will  be  chosen  the  farm  bureau  committee 
for  local  projects.  If  the  people  are  not  divided  too 
seriously  in  religious  matters,  it  will  become  the  parish 
also,  with  somewhat  definite  and  known  lines  of  de- 
ma  rkation.  It  would  not  be  strange  if,  in  the  natural 
evolution  of  social  groupings,  it  should  even  come  to 


Education  161 

be  recognized  sometime  as  a  local  governmental  unit, 
making  the  farmer  a  part  of  a  civic  area  and  group- 
ing, just  as  the  city  man  is  a  part  of  his  municipality. 

The  Community  Lecture  Course 

The  "Lyceum  Course"  is  an  old  institution  in  Amer- 
ica. A  community  is  marked  as  being  well  up  to  the 
times  when  it  regularly  contracts  with  a  bureau  for 
such  a  course.  The  numbers  as  presented  during  a 
winter  season  offer  a  splendid  opportunity  for  getting 
the  larger  community  together  to  be  entertained  and 
benefited. 

Another  type  of  course  may  also  be  arranged  by  a 
local  committee,  with  special  reference  to  local  com- 
munity development.  In  many  small  places  such  a 
course  is  arranged  to  parallel  the  entertaining  course 
from  the  professional  bureau.  The  numbers  for  such 
a  course  may  be  secured  at  small  cost  usually  from 
state  departments  and  educational  institutions,  and  may 
be  chosen  with  a  view  to  having  discussions  on  sub- 
jects especially  needful  to  the  community.  Letters  to 
the  extension  departments  of  the  state  educational  in- 
stitutions, and  to  the  various  departments  at  the  state 
house,  inquiring  as  to  what  speakers  can  be  secured, 
will  bring  the  desired  information.  Also,  church  col- 
leges, and  various  state  organizations  (such  as  good 
roads  associations)  may  be  sources  of  such  assistance. 
Sometimes  a  clergyman  or  a  school  superintendent  of 
prominence  in  a  neighboring  city  may  be  secured  for 


162  Rural  Organization 

one  number  on  the  course.  A  leader  of  community 
music  will  furnish  one  evening  of  entertainment,  and 
an  amateur  play  or  pageant  will  supply  another  enter- 
taining feature  of  community-wide  interest.  An  in- 
genious local  leader  should  be  able  to  make  up  such 
a  "community  course"  without  any  great  difficulty. 

When  admission  is  charged  for  an  event,  or  for 
any  part  of  such  a  course,  the  lecturer  or  entertainer 
should  be  remunerated.  No  community  will  want  to 
make  money  out  of  special  service  without  giving 
ample  return  to  the  one  rendering  the  service.  How- 
ever, when  a  lecturer  or  trainer  or  entertainer  for  such 
a  course  is  not  professionally  in  the  business,  the  cost 
will  be  only  nominal. 

The  Extension  School 

The  "Rx tension  School"  is  a.  school  for__adults  in 
the  agricultural  community.  It  is  usually  of  from  two 
to  five  days'  duration,  and  is  arranged  by  a  local  com- 
mittee in  cooperation  with  the  extension  division  of 
the  state  agricultural  college. 

Where  such  a  plan  is  available,  the  college  will  send 
from  two  to  five  lecturers  and  demonstrators  to  pre- 
sent the  various  subjects  to  be  treated  in  the  school. 
A  general  extension  school  will  carry  as  subject  mat- 
ter a  considerably  extended  course  in  Agriculture  and 
Home  Economics.  A  special  school  will  be  of  shorter 
duration — a  day  or  two  days — and  will  deal  with  some 
special  subject,  such  as  "Poultry,"  or  "Dietetics." 


Education  163 

There  is  ordinarily  a  small  charge  for  the  Extension 
School,  to  partially  defray  the  traveling  expenses  of 
the  persons  sent  from  the  college.  Salaries  are  paid, 
usually,  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
the  college  cooperatively. 

In  organizing  an  extension  school,  the  responsibility 
should  first  be  undertaken  by  a  local  committee.  After 
securing  from  the  college  all  the  necessary  informa- 
tion concerning  details,  the  committee  will  find  it  most 
satisfactory  to  decide  how  many  persons  can  be  se- 
cured to  attend  the  school,  the  total  amount  of  the 
expense  involved,  and  the  prorata  which  each  person 
should  bear.  A  definite  charge  of  this  amount  per  per- 
son then  may  be  made,  the  signatures  of  a  sufficient 
number  of  persons  being  secured  to  warrant  the  hold- 
ing of  the  school. 

School  sessions  are  usually  in  the  forenoon  and  the 
afternoon  of  each  day,  although  at  some  time  during 
the  course  a  popular  evening  meeting  may  be  held,  to 
which  the  entire  community  may  be  invited  free  of 
charge.  At  this  meeting,  community  interest  in  agri- 
culture will  be  developed. 

The  Community  Assembly 

The— "community  assembly"  or-JL'institute"  is  some- 
what of  the  nature  of  a  chautauqua,  except  that  it  is 
built  on  a  program  of  comrrmmty__developrnent.  If  held 
in  the  summer  time,  it  may  be  under  a  tent, — other- 
wise an  auditorium  of  the  schoolhouse  or  the  church 


164  Rural  Organisation 

will  be  suitable.  Such  assemblies  may  frequently  be 
arranged  in  cooperation  with  the  extension  depart- 
ments of  state  schools.  Where  there  is  good  local  lead- 
ership, they  may  be  planned  entirely  in  the  local  com- 
munity, bringing  speakers  from  the  outside  and  supply- 
ing the  entertaining  features  with  local  talent. 

The  assembly,  or  institute,  differs  from  the  "exten- 
sion school"  in  the  nature  of  the  program.  The  exten- 
sion  school  is  technical,  and  of  a  discussion  nature; 

the  assembly  program   is  of  ft  pnpnlar-pHiirational   na- 

ture.  It  should  feature  also  every  phase  of  self-ex- 
pression in  the  community,  so  that  the  result  will  be 
to  encourage  the  people  with  the  realization  of  their 
own  ability  to  do  things  that  are  worth  while.  The 
support  for  such  an  affair  may  be  by  season  ticket, 
with  the  understanding  that  the  plan  is  a  cooperative 
way  of  meeting  the  expense,  and  not  for  raising  money 
for  any  other  purpose. 

Boys1'  and  Girls'  Clubs 

The  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  for  agricultural  com- 
munities are  fostered  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  operating  through  the  extension 
divisions  of  the  state  agricultural  colleges.  While  all 
of  the  projects  are  "production  projects,"  yet  the  par- 
ticular purpose  is  educational.  They  had  their  origin 
in  the  discovery  in  certain  sections  of  the  country  that 
when  adults  could  not  be  induced  to  improve  upon 
methods  of  production,  a  practical  educational  cam- 


Education  165 

paign  among  the  children  demonstrated  the  possibili- 
ties to  the  older  people,  and  also  trained  the  children 
so  that  in  their  adult  years  they  would  practice  methods 
learned  in  youth. 

A  local  leader  will  often  find  that,  when  other  meth- 
ods fail  to  awaken  interest,  the  organization  of  such 
clubs  will  make  a  good  beginning  of  community  activ- 
ities. The  clubs  will  be  organized  for  whatever  proj- 
ects can  be  most  successfully  carried  through  in  the 
local  conditions.  The  variety  of  clubs  from  which 
choice  may  be  made  is  large,  the  list  of  club  projects 
including  club  work  with  corn,  sorghums,  pigs,  poul- 
try, tomatoes,  potatoes,  gardening,  and  canning,  the 
square-rod  garden,  apples,  cooking,  sewing,  farm  and 
home  handicraft. 

The  organization  of  a  club  is  very  simple.  Any 
teacher,  minister,  farmers'  institute  officer,  grange 
officer,  officers  of  other  farmers'  organizations,  Sun- 
day-school, commercial  clubs,  or  any  public-spirited 
citizen  may,  by  a  few  hours'  work,  perfect  an  organi- 
zation. All  that  need  be  done  in  order  to  start  a  club 
is  to  get  a  half  dozen  or  more  boys  or  girls  interested 
in  some  one  or  two  clubs,  then  write  to  the  county 
or  state  leader  for  membership  pledge  cards  and  for 
rules  governing  the  particular  club  or  clubs  desired. 
Of  course,  it  is  much  better  to  have  the  members  of 
the  different  clubs  in  the  different  districts  or  com- 
munities elect  a  president,  vice-president  and  secretary, 
and  hold  frequent  meetings.  This  is  not  a  state  or 
national  requirement.  In  many  communities  it  would 


166  Rural  Organisation 

not  be  practical,  either  on  account  of  the  lack  of  ma- 
ture leaders,  or  on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  finding 
meeting  points  which  are  accessible  to  all  members  of 
the  district  composing  the  club.  If,  then,  those  inter- 
ested in  the  organization  of  this  movement  can  not 
get  their  boys  and  girls  together  for  meeting  pur- 
poses, they  should  urge  them  to  enroll  anyhow,  that 
they  may  become  members  of  the  "big  family"  of  boys 
and  girls  who  are  putting  into  practice  some  of  the 
lessons  learned  both  at  home  and  at  school. 

For  information  and  general  leadership,  application 
should  be  made  to  your  state  agricultural  college. 

The  Community  Fair  * 

The  community  fair  is  a  miniature  county  fair  with 
the  races,  side  shows,  and  other  commercialized  amuse- 
ments omitted.  It  calls  not  only  for  the  exhibition  of 
the  best  products  that  have  been  grown  and  the  best 
work  that  has  been  done  in  the  community,  but  also 
for  games,  athletic  contests,  pageants,  and  similar 
features  of  recreational  or  educational  value. 

The  community  fair  is  most  effective  where  the 
whole  community  is  concerned  in  its  management, 
though  successful  fairs,  patronized  by  the  greater  part 
of  the  people  of  the  community,  are  often  held  by  the 
Grange,  Farmers'  Union,  or  other  farmers'  organiza- 
tions. 

*  Farmers'  Bulletin  370,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, by  J.  Sterling  Moran. 


Education  167 

The  first  step  toward  holding  a  community  fair  is 
to  interest  the  leaders  of  the  community;  the  second 
is  to  call  a  meeting  of  the  whole  community  to  elect 
officers  and  appoint  committees  to  have  charge  of  the 
work.  The  fair  should  be  well  advertised,  and  effort 
should  be  made  to  secure  exhibits  from  as  many  per- 
sons as  possible,  rather  than  to  secure  exhibits  of  ex- 
ceptional quality.  For  premiums,  ribbons  are  usually 
awarded,  rather  than  cash  payments.  As  most  of  the 
preparation  for  the  fair  is  made  by  volunteer  workers, 
the  small  amount  of  money  required  for  incidental  ex- 
penses can  be  raised  by  subscription  or  by  the  sale  of 
advertising  space  in  the  catalogue  or  on  the  program. 
There  should  be  no  entry  fees  or  admission  charge. 

The  judges  should  be  secured,  if  possible,  from  out- 
side the  community,  and  should  be  given  an  oppor- 
tunity to  explain  their  awards  to  the  exhibitors  inter- 
ested. The  best  exhibits  shown  at  a  community  fair  in 
many  cases  have  been  taken  to  the  county  fair  as  a 
community  exhibit,  thus  giving  opportunity  for  profit- 
able community  rivalry. 

The  Farmers'  Institute 

The  Farmers'  Institute  is  primarily  for  the  purpose 
of  conducting  discussion  meetings  in  the  interest  of 
definite  farm  and  farm  home  activities.  Originally  the 
institute  was  a  meeting  of  farmers  in  a  given  neighbor- 
hood, where  general  farm  interests  were  dealt  with  by 
the  members  themselves.  For  the  purpose  of  conduct- 


168  Rural  Organisation 

ing  the  meetings,  an  organization  was  perfected,  after 
the  usual  form,  with  president,  vice-president,  secre- 
tary, and  treasurer. 

As  a  natural  development  of  this  pioneer  stage,  spe- 
cialists and  speakers  of  known  ability  were  brought 
into  the  community  from  the  outside,  so  that  in  many 
cases  the  farmers'  institutes  resolved  themselves  into 
schools  of  discussion  under  professional  and  trained 
specialists,  but  always  with  the  administrative  control 
remaining  with  the  local  executive  committee. 

Many  farmers'  institutes  are  still  conducted  by  local 
communities,  much  after  the  old  popular  plan.  They 
have  much  in  their  favor  from  the  standpoint  of  en- 
couraging local  expression.  However,  the  average 
institute  has  become  part  of  a  county  institute  and 
state  institute  system.  In  many  states,  according  to 
state  law,  the  county  board  is  required  to  give  finan- 
cial aid  to  county  institutes  having  a  specified  enroll- 
ment. Ordinarily,  speakers  for  such  institutes  (both 
men  and  women)  are  sent  out  through  the  extension 
divisions  of  the  agricultural  colleges,  and  in  many  sec- 
tions the  tendency  has  been  for  the  responsibility  to 
devolve  more  and  more  upon  these  central  agencies, 
although  the  best  success  is  attained  where  the  college 
and  the  local  people  equally  share  in  conducting  the 
institute. 

Where  meetings  of  this  kind  are  needed,  no  bet- 
ter organization  can  be  perfected  for  the  purpose.  In 
cases,  however,  where  the  people  may  for  a  number 
of  years  have  been  surfeited  with  such  meetings,  so 


Education  1 69 

that  they  are  no  longer  attractive  either  of  interest  or 
attendance,  and  where  the  farm  bureau  has  been  or- 
ganized; it  proves  better  to  allow  the  farmers'  insti- 
tute idea  to  function  in  demonstration  work  through 
the  local  community  committee  of  the  farm  bureau. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Is  education  primarily  for  the  sake  of  the  individual  or  of 

the  community? 

2.  Do  the  original  district  school  lines  follow  what  now  might 

be  called  community  lines? 

3.  What  requirements  of  a  "rural  community,"   according  to 

our  definition,  are  offended  by  the  ordinary  rural  school 
district? 

4.  What  is  the  relationship  between  the  community  ideal  and 

the  movement  for  consolidated  schools? 

5.  How  does  the  curriculum  and  equipment  of  the  one  room 

country  school  fail  to  prepare  pupils  for  community  life? 

6.  How  should  the  school  aid  in  developing  the  economic  wel- 

fare of  the  community? 

7.  How  does  a  community  high  school  preserve  the  solidarity 

of  a  community? 

8.  Should  the  school  extend  educational  opportunities  to  adults  ? 

9.  What  are  some  of  the  factors  of  success  in  conducting  a 

campaign  for  a  modern  type  of  school? 

10.  What  methods  are  found  practicable  in  conducting  a  com- 

munity lecture  course? 

11.  What  is  an  "extension  school"?     How  organized  and  con- 

ducted ? 

12.  How  does  the  "community  assembly"  or  "community  insti- 

tute" differ  from  an  extension  school? 

13.  Explain  the  purposes  and  procedure  in  organizing  and  con- 

ducting  boys'   and   girls'    clubs    in   the   agricultural   com- 
munity. 

14.  Outline  method  of  organizing  and  conducting  a  community 

fair. 

15.  Briefly  trace  the  development  of  the  farmers'  institute. 


170  Rural  Organisation 


RESEARCH  PROBLEMS 

1.  How  many  grade  schools  are  there  in  this  community,  and 

where  located?    Designate  them  on  the  community  map. 

2.  Should  the  number  be  larger  or  smaller? 

3.  Are  there  rural  district  schools  that  should  be  developed 

as  such? 

4.  What  schools  could  be  consolidated  advantageously? 

5.  What  is  the  average  assessed  valuation  of  the  local  rural 

school  district? 

6.  What  is  the  tax  expense  of  the  local  district  school  in  this 

community  to  the  farmer  with  average  holdings? 

7.  What  is  the  average  salary  of  the  teachers  of  these  schools? 

How  does  it  compare  with  the  income  of  other  people  in 
the  community? 

8.  What  is  the  average  enrollment  of  the  rural  district  school? 

9.  What  percentage  of  those  enrolled  in  the  last  eight  years 

have  graduated?  What  percentage  of  these  have  enrolled 
in  a  high  school  ? 

10.  What  would  be  the  cost  to  the  entire  community  of  estab- 

lishing and  maintaining  a  consolidated  school  with  a  high 
school  ? 

11.  What  part  of  this  total  would  the  small  city  center  pay? 

What  part  would  the  farmers  pay?  How  much  would  it 
cost  the  average  town  merchant?  How  much  would  it 
cost  the  average  farmer?  How  do  these  individual  costs 
compare  with  the  cost  for  like  purposes  to  the  average 
property  owner  in  the  nearest  large  city? 

12.  Does  the  community  have  adequate  high  school  privileges? 

Under  present  arrangements,  can  the  farm  boy  and  girl 
live  at  home  and  secure  a  high  school  education?  If 
better  privileges  are  needed,  how  may  they  be  secured  ? 

13.  Would  it  be  feasible  to  introduce  or  improve  work  in  voca- 

tional agriculture?  Farm  shop  practice?  Domestic 
science  ? 

14.  What  is  the  attitude  of  the  people  toward  vocational  educa- 

tion? 

15.  What  local  plan  is  there  for  extension  education? 


Education  171 

16.  Would  it  be  advisable  to  introduce  or  develop  any  of  the 
following :  evening  school ;  farmers'  institute ;  farm  bureau 
community  committee;  extension  schools  in  agriculture  or 
home  economics ;  merchants'  short  course ;  chautauqua,  or 
community  assembly ;  lecture  course ;  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  ? 


CHAPTER  II 

SANITATION 

Need  Develops  with  Group  Living 

THE  pioneer  has  less  need  than  a  person  in  a  set- 
tled community  for  giving  attention  to  matters  of 
sanitation  and  health.  A  passable  amount  of  personal 
cleanliness  is  sufficient  for  him.  If  his  body  needs 
cleansing,  a  convenient,  unpolluted  stream  will  serve 
his  purpose.  If  the  place  where  he  halts  his  wagon  or 
pitches  his  tent  becomes  filthy,  he  needs  only  to  drive 
on  and  pitch  his  tent  in  a  clean  place.  Nature  will  in 
time  clean  up  the  place  that  he  has  polluted  and  left. 
As  long  as  "all  out  of  doors"  is  open  for  him,  he 
knows  few  problems  of  sanitation  and  its  relation  to 
health. 

It  is  whgn_families  begin  to  live  together  in  com- 
munities that  they  begin  to  have  problems  of  public 
-dearrfrfiess"ahd_  health.  So  truly  is  sanitation  looked 
upon  as  a  community  function,  that  the  word  is  scarce- 
ly ever  used  except  in  regard  to  cleanliness  in  relation 
to  the  health  of  people  who  live  together  in  a  popula- 
tion group. 

172 


Sanitation  173 

Urban  Communities  Point  the  Way 

It  now  needs  no  argument  to  prove  that  city  sani- 
tation is  a  community  function.  Our  large  municipal- 
ities have  come  to  give  punctilious  attention  to  this 
matter  of  public  cleanliness  and  health.  Clean  streets 
and  clean  alleys  are  now  the  rule,  not  the  exception, 
in  the  average  American  city.  While  there  are  hor- 
rible examples  of  the  exception  still  remaining,  yet  in 
many  quarters  even  the  most  congested  districts  of 
our  cities  are  connected  with  the  city  water  works  and 
sewerage  system.  In  this^  way,  we  have,  in  such  sgc- 
tions,  long  ago,  by  municipal  action,  done  away  _wjth 


|jie  awful  rayjLgej_£f_tl^£^iseases^  whicji  _c^me._frjom 
the  germs  nurtured  in  human  excreta.  Let  a  new- 
comer in  such  a  district  throw  garbage  out  into  the 
open  space  back  of  the  house,  and  it  will  not  be  strange 
if  before  night  an  officer  will  come  to  the  door  and 
order  the  objectionable  material  removed,  under  the 
penalty  of  the  "law."  This  "law"  is  simply  an  enact- 
ment  which  the  community  in  its  organized  capacity 
hasiTiade^for  the  common  welfare.  It  is  the  way  in 
whidi  it  .performs  the  functiofl-of  keeping  itself  deatr 
—  the  community  function  of  sanitation. 

Again,  through  a  system  of  "friendly  visitation"  by 
public  health  nurses  employed  by  the  city,  cases  of 
disease  which  might  become  epidemic  are  promptly 
reported.  A  quarantine  is  immediately  placed  accord- 
ing to  law,  and  strictly  enforced.  This  is  the  way  that 


174  Rural  Organisation 

the  community  has  of  keeping  itself  well — of  perform- 
ing the  community  function  of  safeguarding  the  pub- 
lic health. 

"Rural  Diseases"  Persistent 

The  responsibility^of  a  person  for  his  own  health, 
and  for  the  health  oi  no~one~else,  has  Been  a  feature 
of  individual  independence  that  held  over  a  little  longer 
in  the  country  than~Tn  the  city,  Because  the  need  of 

the  changed  viewpoint  was""" Of  imprpsspH   so   fnrrjhly 

If  a  man  kept  filthy  premises,  he  might  get  to  himself 
an  odious  reputation  for  doing  so,  but  it  was  "his  own 
business."  If  a  family  wished  to  drink  water  out  of 
an  open  well  which  was  in  a  natural  drain  from  the 
privy  and  barn  lot,  that  was  their  "own  affair."  If 
they  welcomed  to  their  dining  table  the  flies  that  had 
been  crawling  over  the  manure  pile  and  in  the  privy 
vault,  and  one  child  after  another  in  the  family  was 
taken  away  by  typhoid,  all  the  neighbors  turned  out 
loyally  to  the  funerals,  to  hear  the  clergyman  read, 
"The  Lord  has  given;  the  Lord  has  taken  away; 
blessed  be  the  name  of  the  Lord." 

Because  of  the  more  scattered  condition  of  the  popu- 
lation, this  idea  held  over  so  long  in  the  country  that 
certain  diseases  came  to  be  spoken  of  as  "rural  dis- 
eases." Such  diseases  as  dysentery,  diphtheria,  and 
typhoid — filth  diseases — were  so  classified  by  many 
who  studied  them.  Not  that  these  diseases  did  not 


Sanitation  175 

appear  in  the  cities,  but  that  they  had  ceased  to  be 
seriously  epidemic  there. 

But  an  increasing  number  of  rural  communities  have 
been  giving  attention  in  recent  years  to  their  function 
of  keeping  clean  and  well.  Thesejiave  been  proving 
by  results  that  where  an  entire  community  will  take 
an  interest  in  this  important  matter,  cleanliness  can 
be  made  the^ j^ule^and  those  diseases  which  are  asso- 
ciated with  filth  can  be  banished. 


Town  Center  Has  Major  Responsibility 

It  is  perhaps  the  duty  of  the  center  of  an  agricul- 
tural community  to  take  the  lead  in  performing  this 
function;  first,  because  the  constant  living  of  a  larger 
number  of  people  in  close  proximity  increases  the 
problem  there,  and,  second,  because  the  remainder  of 
the  people  centralize  their  activities  there  and  are  likely, 
when  they  carry  clothing  and  groceries  home  with 
them,  to  carry  also  the  disease  germs  which  have  found 
breeding  places  in  a  dirty  town  center. 

It  is  surprising  what  can  be  done  in  keeping  a  small 
city  or  village  clean,_by_the  generation  of  community 
spirit"  for  tHis  purpose.  A  committee  on  "dumping 
gCQund"..  may  easily  find  a  distant  ravine  where  cans 
and  other  rubbish  may  be  placed.  This  is  much  bet- 
ter than  to  have  many  small  dumping  grounds,  or  to 
scatter  the  trash  along  the  railroad  right-of-way.  The 
latter  method  has  been  used  in  all  too  many  of  our 


176  Rural  Organisation 

towns.  This  is  unfair  both  to  the  railroad  company 
and  to  the  community;  to  the  railroad  company  be- 
cause it  is  stealing  the  use  of  their  property,  and  to 
the  community  because  the  traveling  public  comes  to 
recognize  its  whereabouts  by  the  particular  contour 
and  odor  of  the  piles  of  cans  and  trash  which  become 
the  first  evidence  that  the  traveler  is  approaching  cer- 
tain small  cities.  With  a  little  volunteer  work,  a  ravine 
may  even  be  planted  with  shrubbery  along  its  upper 
edges,  to  hide  the  cast-off  material  from  public  view. 
In  many  places  where  such  a  common  dumping  ground 
is  maintained,  volunteer  labor  attends  to  the  task  of 
occasionally  scattering  scrapers-full  of  fresh  earth  over 
the  material.  With  such  an  arrangement,  care  exer- 
cised by  individual  families,  and  a  few  "community 
clean-up  days"  throughout  the  year,  will  enable  the 
small  city  to  keep  itself  fairly  free  from  filth.  We  are, 
of  course,  referring  to  the  city  that  is  too  small  to  have 
a  well-equipped  and  well-officered  public  health  de- 
partment. 

Public  interest  in  the  disposal  of  garbage  will  also 
devise  many  ways  in  which  this  daily  problem  can  be 
solved,  rather  than  to  have  each  family  throw  the 
garbage  out  of  the  back  door  or  in  some  unsightly 
place  on  the  premises.  Frequently  where  a  consider- 
able number  of  neighbors  will  club  together  in  this 
matter,  some  one  who  feeds  hogs  outside  of  town  can 
be  found  who  will  be  glad  to  collect  this  table  and 
kitchen  refuse  regularly.  Such  a  person  would  not 
take  the  trouble  to  collect  garbage  from  one  individual 


Sanitation  177 

here  and  there,  but  would  do  so  if  the  group  were 
large  enough  to  enable  him  to  equip  for  such  a  pur- 
pose. 

Small  Cities  Improving 

A  large  number  of  our  smaller  cities  during  the  past 
few  years  have  provided  themselves  with  water- 
works and  sewer  systems,  doing  away  with  the  well 
and  the  privy  vault  in  close  proximity.  This  move- 
ment has  progressed  so  quietly,  that  we  have  scarcely 
realized  yet  the  significance  to  public  welfare  of  the 
water  towers  and  pumping  stations  that  have  appeared 
in  thousands  of  such  small  cities,  or  of  the  disappear- 
ance of  that  long  line  of  centers  of  filth  that  formerly 
marked  the  limits  of  the  back  yards  of  the  community. 
If  any  one  doubts  that  the  world  is  getting  better, 
community  by  community  (the  only  way  that  it  ever 
can  get  better),  let  him  consider  for  a  time  all  the 
significance  of  this  quiet  development  by  the  people 
themselves  in  the  interests  of  common  decency,  sani- 
tation and  health. 

Many  Small  Villages  Keep  Clean 

The  sanitation  of  the  smaller  village  is  a  greater 
problem.  There  are  here  economic  limitations  and 
problems  of  engineering.  A  few  specialists  are  work- 
ing exclusively  in  this  field,  and  many  more  should 
be  employed,  to  discover  the  best  way  of  dealing  with 


178  Rural  Organization 

its  peculiar  phases.  But  in  the  meantime  there  are 
cases  on  record  where  the  village  families  and  the 
farm  families  have  joined  in  a  community  movement 
to  ameliorate  the  ills  of  these  peculiar  limitations.  By 
public  education  and  a  concerted  movement,  a  certain 
type  of  cement  privy  vaults  have  been  built,  with  pro- 
vision made  for  their  cleansing  at  regular  intervals  by 
some  person  who  will  take  the  contract  for  this  piece 
of  work  for  the  entire  community.  The  outbuildings 
themselves  are  screened  and  so  kept  fly-proof. 

At  the  church  and  school  premises,  where  the  people 
of  the  community  assemble,  special  opportunity  is  be- 
ing found  for  teaching  lessons  of  sanitation.  At  such 
centers,  pure  water,  properly  protected  from  contam- 
ination, and  toilet  provisions  that  are  sanitary  and  de- 
cent, often  make  for  moral  and  cultural  development 
even  more  than  does  the  teaching  propounded  inside 
the  churches  and  schools  .themselves.  The  making  of 
such  provisions  in  a  modern  way  speaks  much  for  the 
genuine  revival  of  community  religion  and  education. 

The  Rural  Health  Nurse 

Out  of  this  subject  comes  also  the  consideration  of 
the  possibility  of  preventing  a  great  deal  of  com- 
municable disease.  Individual  families,  acting  alone, 
could  only  wait  until  the  dread  disease  had  attacked 
some  member,  and  then  send  for  a  trained  nurse  to 
help  combat  the  disease.  But  people  have  been  finding 


Sanitation  179 

that  this  was  a  costly  method,  in  sorrow,  in  suffering, 
and  in  economic  loss.  They  have  been  learning  also 
that  the  cost  in  all  these  ways-  extends  not  only  to  the 
limits  of  the  family,  but  throughout  the  entire  com- 
munity. The  solution  has  been  found  in  the  public 
health  nurse.  It  has  been  found  much  cheaper  for  a 
group  of  people  to  recognize  that  the  maintenance  of 
health  is  a  community  function,  that  it  is  less  costly  in 
every  way  for  an  entire  community  to  cooperate  in 
employing  nurses  and  other  specialists  to  help  keep 
the  people  well,  than  for  individuals  to  bear  the  re- 
sponsibility merely  of  saving  their  own  families  when 
disease  enters  the  home  circle.  We  are  coming  to  rec- 
ognize that  there  is  the  same  good  sense  in  the  disease 
control  district  for  humans  as  there  is  in  the  "hog 
cholera  control  district"  for  hogs;  that  you  can  keep 
a  community  of  people  well  by  organized  attention  to 
health  and  sanitation,  just  as  truly  as  you  can  keep  a 
community  of  hogs  well  by  proper  organized  attention 
to  these  matters. 

TYPICAL  ORGANIZATIONS   AND   PROJECTS 

Introduction 

The  maintenance  of  proper  sanitation  and  health  is 
a  governmental  function  in  theory,  and  should  as  rap- 
idly as  possible  be  made  so  in  fact.  This  will  require, 
of  course,  a  large  investment  of  funds  raised  from 


180  Rural  Organisation 

taxation,  and  such  an  investment  can  be  secured  only 
when  an  educational  program  has  awakened  the  peo- 
ple to  the  need  and  desirability  of  such  action.  Many 
creditable  voluntary  agencies  are  undertaking  such  an 
educational  program,  and  the  local  leader  will  do  well 
to  encourage  them  in  such  a  course  during  the  emer- 
gency period.  He  should,  however,  recognize  clearly 
that  the  entire  trend  of  the  public  health  movement  is 
toward  official  governmental  agencies,  and  should  work 
under  the  direction  of  such  agencies  just  as  rapidly  as 
they  are  prepared  to  function. 

The  United  States  Public  Health  Service 

The  United  States  Public  Health  Service  is  in  the 
Department  of  the  Treasury  at  Washington.  It  under- 
takes, from  the  federal  side,  to  foster  all  public  health 
and  sanitation  movements.  In  certain  demonstration 
areas  this  service  is  featuring  a  model  system  of  health 
supervision  and  maintenance,  as  in  the  tri-county  dis- 
trict in  three  states  where  Kansas  and  Oklahoma  join 
with  Missouri.  This  is  a  cooperative  arrangement  with 
the  counties  concerned.  The  Service  is  also  made  the 
agency  for  administering  such  federal  funds  as  are 
appropriated  for  surveys  to  secure  general  informa- 
tion on  public  health  conditions,  for  special  effort  in 
the  eradication  of  special  diseases  which  threaten  wide 
interstate  areas,  and  for  cooperative  activities  with 
state  and  county  boards  of  health. 


Sanitation  181 


The  State  Board  of  Health  is  the  authoritative 
agency  for  maintaining  conditions  of  sanitation  and 
health  throughout  the  entire  state.  It  is  maintained  by 
legislative  appropriation.  It  exercises  both  educational 
and  restrictive  functions.  It  has  the  responsibility  of 
inspection  concerning,  and  enforcement  of,  all  laws 
pertaining  to  its  field  of  responsibility.  In  some  states, 
since  its  system  of  inspection  thoroughly  covers  the 
entire  area,  other  duties  are  delegated  to  the  board, 
such  as  the  inspection  of  weights  and  measures.  In 
cooperative  relationship  with  the  United  States  Public 
Health  Service,  the  board  conducts  certain  projects  for 
the  prevention  and  eradication  of  diseases  within  the 
state  which  have  proved  themselves  a  nation-wide 
menace. 

County  Board  of  Health 

In  many  states  the  county  health  system  is  not  yet 
efficiently  organized.  Often  a  county  health  officer, 
giving  only  part  time  to  the  work,  and  that  merely  in 
attending  to  cases  which  happen  to  be  reported  to  him, 
represents  the  progress  made  thus  far.  However,  the 
ideal  system  is  recognized  to  be  one  in  which  each 
county  will  have  its  county  board  of  health,  with  a 
full-time  paid  health  officer,  with  such  assistants  and 
equipment  as  may  be  necessary.  Some  states  have 


182  Rural  Organization 

passed  far-reaching  legislation  looking  toward  this 
end.  For  the  present,  the  safest  place  to  apply  for 
accurate  information  on  all  such  subjects  is  to  your 
state  board  of  health. 


Cooperative  Governmental  Agencies 

It  is  confidently  expected  that  in  the  near  future  our 
public  health  machinery  will  consist  in  a  cooperative 
arrangement  of  the  three  agencies :  the  federal  govern- 
ment through  the  United  States  Public  Health  Service 
appropriating  funds  to  the  states  to  be  administered 
by  the  state  boards  of  health;  the  states  duplicating 
these  amounts,  and  allowing  the  funds  to  be  adminis- 
tered through  county  boards  of  health;  the  counties  in 
each  case  adding  to  the  available  amount  from  the  fed- 
eral and  state  governments,  and  administering  the 
funds  locally.  This  is  the  system  which  the  local  leader 
should  encourage  in  every  way  possible. 

The  American  Red  Cross 

The  American  Red  Cross,  during  the  Great  War, 
perfected  organizations  of  county  chapters  in  prac- 
tically every  county  in  the  United  States.  These  were 
primarily  for  the  purpose  of  furthering  the  work  of 
the  Red  Cross  in  the  cantonments  and  in  the  war  zone. 
With  the  unexpected  signing  of  the  armistice  the  na- 
tional leaders  of  the  Red  Cross  found  under  their  direc- 
tion this  almost  one  hundred  per  cent  organized  activ- 


Sanitation  183 

ity,  with  prestige  of  successful  accomplishment  and 
with  equipment  and  personnel  suitable  for  a  big  task. 
A  considerable  amount  of  work  was  still  to  be  done 
in  the  rehabilitation  of  wounded  men  and  their  fam- 
ilies, in  the  various  attentions  to  bereaved  families  in 
small  communities  all  over  the  nation,  as  well  as  in 
further  activities  in  the  war  zone.  Very  early  after 
the  signing  of  the  armistice  the  organization  leaders 
announced  to  their  county  chapter  leaders  that  any 
peace-time  activities  for  the  public  welfare  might  be 
undertaken  which  were  not  already  being  successfully 
carried  on  by  some  other  agency.  Since  that  time  a 
peace-time  program  has  been  developed,  and  the  or- 
ganization is  conducting  certain  activities  which  they 
have  chosen  as  coming  within  their  scope.  Of  these, 
the  rural  leader  will  naturally  expect  those  relating  to 
health  and  sanitation,  and  especially  of  an  emergency 
nature,  to  make  the  greatest  appeal  to  him.  This  work 
is  conducted  by  the  American  Red  Cross  by  means  of 
educational  literature,  home  service,  public  health  nurs- 
ing, health  centers,  the  Junior  Red  Cross  in  coopera- 
tion with  the  schools,  and  by  other  such  methods.  A 
special  department  is  maintained  in  the  national  head- 
quarters at  Washington,  for  rural  service;  and  such 
departments  are  found  in  certain  divisional  headquar- 
ters. For  information  the  rural  leader  should  address 
the  Rural  Organization  Bureau  of  the  American  Red 
Cross,  Washington,  D.  C.,  or  any  divisional  headquar- 
ters. There  are  divisional  headquarters  as  follows : 
Boston,  Mass. ;  New  York  City ;  Philadelphia ;  Wash- 


184  Rural  Organisation 

ington,  D.  C. ;  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  Cleveland,  Ohio;  New 
Orleans,  La.;  Chicago;  St.  Louis;  Denver;  Seattle, 
Wash. ;  San  Francisco.  There  is  also  a  Territorial,  In- 
sular and  Foreign  Division  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

Community  Cleanup  Campaign 

This  project  is  for  the  small  city  or  town  center  of 
a  rural  community,  and  the  following  suggestions  are 
based  upon  actual  achievements  in  a  large  number  of 
places.  In  conducting  such  a  campaign,  it  is  well  to 
thoroughly  plan  in  advance  the  program  of  work.  A 
mass  meeting  at  the  moving-picture  theater  may  be 
made  the  means  of  awakening  public  interest.  There 
are  several  good  films  available  showing  the  evils  of 
filth  as  a  producer  of  disease.  By  beginning  early 
enough  in  advance,  the  man  who  runs  the  picture 
show  can  secure  at  least  one  such  reel.  There  are  also 
a  number  of  sets  of  slides  available  presenting  this  sub- 
ject. The  state  board  of  health,  the  extension  division 
of  the  agricultural  college  or  of  the  state  university,  all 
have  facilities  for  your  use  in  educating  the  public 
along  these  lines.  A  good  lecturer  may  be  obtained 
through  any  one  of  these  agencies,  to  inspire  and  in- 
struct the  people  in  the  interests  of  a  clean  community. 
It  is  well  to  remember  the  old  adage  of  "a  little  non- 
sense now  and  then"  and  intersperse  your  moving-pic- 
ture program  with  a  few  hundred  feet  of  comic  film. 

The  churches  will  be  brought  into  line  with  the  cam- 
paign, and  each  minister  will  be  glad,  on  the  Sunday 


Sanitation  185 

preceding  clean-up  day,  to  preach  a  sermon  on  the 
duty  of  cleanliness.  Material  for  the  preparation  of 
such  addresses  may  be  secured  from  a  local  physician, 
the  state  board  of  health,  the  anti-tuberculosis  associa- 
tion, and  other  such  agencies. 

The  next  step  will  be  to  organize  definitely  the  cam- 
paign through  the  schools.  While  boys'  clubs,  scout 
patrols  and  other  groups  may  work  as  such,  yet  it  is 
desirable  that  every  child  in  town  should  have  a  part 
in  the  organized  clean-up  campaign.  A  man  who  is 
adept  in  speaking  to  children,  and  especially  to  boys, 
may  present  the  proposition  at  the  schoolhouses  be- 
fore the  various  grades  and  in  the  high  school.  He 
will  find  it  much  easier  to  enthuse  the  children  in  the 
scheme  if  clean-up  day  can  be  some  time  other  than 
Saturday,  so  that  it  may  be  a  real  holiday.  He  must 
know  the  program  of  work  from  beginning  to  end, 
and  announce  it  to  the  children. 

The  town  will  have  been  divided  into  districts;  the 
school  is  divided  into  companies,  each  company  as- 
signed to  a  district  and  officered  by  a  competent  cap- 
tain. Squads  of  children  are  organized  for  various 
types  of  work.  There  will  be  groups  of  smaller  chil- 
dren to  gather  up  loose  papers.  Each  one  of  these  chil- 
dren will  carry  a  stick  with  a  nail  driven  in  near  one 
end,  with  which  to  pick  up  paper  without  touching  it 
with  his  hands,  and  a  sack  in  which  to  deposit  the 
paper  for  carrying  it  where  it  is  to  be  burned.  Both 
boys  and  girls  will  work  well  at  this  necessary  part  of 
the  task. 


186  Rural  Organisation 

The  boys  who  can  bring  small  wagons  and  wheel- 
barrows will  be  allowed  to  volunteer.  With  these  ve- 
hicles they  will  haul  the  collected  refuse  to  places  where 
large  quantities  will  be  assembled  to  be  hauled  away 
and  destroyed. 

Pitchforks  and  rakes  will  be  the  weapons  of  other 
brigades.  All,  of  course,  must  be  under  the  direction 
of  adults,  and  these  latter  will  realize  that  it  will  be 
necessary  for  them  also  to  perform  a  reasonable  part 
of  the  work. 

Interest  is  added  to  the  entire  campaign  where  the 
women  serve  a  noonday  meal  for  those  who  are  work- 
ing in  the  interests  of  a  clean  town.  Be  assured  also 
that  the  boys  and  girls  will  all  come  from  the  fore- 
noon's work  ravenously  hungry.  Therefore  the  women 
should  adopt  in  this  case  the  Boy  Scout  motto,  "Be 
prepared." 

It  will  be  the  duty  of  the  town  council,  where  that 
august  body  exists,  to  have  the  refuse  hauled  out  of 
town,  and  this  should  be  done  on  the  afternoon  of 
clean-up  day.  Enough  teams  and  wagons  should  be 
engaged  in  this  work  to  complete  the  job  before  night. 

Care  must  be  exercised  to  thoroughly  do  away  with 
whatever  part  of  the  refuse  will  not  burn.  It  must  not 
be  allowed  to  remain  as  a  blot  to  the  rural  landscape. 
A  very  good  plan  is  to  throw  the  refuse  into  a  ravine, 
and  then  with  a  few  teams  and  scrapers  cover  it  to  a 
fair  depth  with  earth. 

The  crowning  event  of  the  day  is  the  evening  pro- 
gram of  fun  for  the  children.  Looking  forward  to 


Sanitation  187 

this,  the  boys  and  girls  should  be  dismissed  from  their 
work  at  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  so  that  they 
may  have  a  few  hours  of  rest. 

If  the  weather  permits,  the  evening  festivities  may 
be  out  of  doors.  It  is  probable  that  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  refuse  collected  is  inflammable — and  per- 
haps merchants  will  be  willing  to  show  their  gratitude 
by  leaving  a  lot  of  boxes  convenient  of  access — and 
one  feature  of  the  evening  fun  may  be  a  huge  bonfire. 
An  Indian  dance  will  readily  occur  to  the  boys  as  be- 
ing the  proper  stunt  while  the  fire  is  burning.  If  there 
is  an  organization  of  Camp  Fire  Girls  in  the  com- 
munity, the  presentation  of  some  of  their  ritual  work 
will  be  timely  and  interesting.  The  "wienie  roast"  may 
be  an  added  feature,  in  which  all  will  be  glad  to  take 
part.  It  may  be  that  a  returned  soldier  can  be  induced 
to  tell  stories  of  adventure.  Better  yet,  a  noted  hunter 
may  be  secured  to  tell  wild  animal  stories.  The  evening 
will  close  with  a  community  sing,  and  a  few  words 
spoken  by  a  local  leader,  thanking  the  boys  and  girls 
for  their  service  to  the  community. 

Community  Campaign  for  a  Sanitary  Privy  System 

In  Public  Health  Bulletin  No.  89,  published  in 
August,  1917,  the  United  States  Public  Health  Serv- 
ice described  definitely  methods  that  may  be  put  into 
operation  for  reorganizing  the  entire  privy  system  of 
a  village  or  a  small  city  without  sewerage  facilities. 
The  details  of  the  plan  are  well  worth  the  considera- 


188  Rural  Organisation 

tion  of  local  leaders.    As  to  method  of  procedure  in 
the  project  itself,  the  bulletin  says : 

"Unless  the  persons  who  are  to  use  the  privies  and 
who  are  to  pay  the  cost  of  installing  and  operating 
the  system  have  an  understanding  of  the  importance 
of  the  work  and  are  in  sympathy  with  the  public  im- 
provement, a  sanitary-privy  system  can  not  be  ex- 
pected to  subserve  fully  its  purpose.  Therefore,  the 
first  step  is  to  arouse  a  sanitary  sense  among  the  peo- 
ple generally  of  the  community.  To  do  this,  public 
meetings  for  discussions  of  sanitation,  newspaper  arti- 
cles, sermons  on  sanitation  by  local  clergymen,  crys- 
tallization and  coordination  of  sentiment  in  existing 
civic  organizations  or  through  newly  formed  sanita- 
tion clubs,  house-to-house  canvassing,  and  various 
other  measures  may  be  employed.  When  public  inter- 
est has  been  sufficiently  aroused,  the  town  authorities 
should  hold  a  public  meeting  to  give  a  hearing  to  citi- 
zens who  may  wish  to  express  themselves  either  for 
or  against  the  proposed  improvement.  If  sanitation 
can  be  made  an  issue  in  the  community,  those  who 
favor  the  correction  of  grossly  insanitary  local  condi- 
tions will  win  practically  always.  The  next  step  is  to 
pass  an  ordinance.  .  .  .  The  ordinance  should  be 
passed  and  promulgated  thirty  or  sixty  days  before  it 
is  to  become  effective.  In  this  period  the  receptacles 
for  the  privies  and  the  equipment  for  the  operation  of 
the  scavenger  service  can  be  obtained  by  the  municipal 
authorities  and  the  privy  boxes  and  flues  can  be  ob- 
tained by  the  property  owners.  As  soon  as  the  scaven- 


Sanitation  189 

ger  service  is  ready  to  begin  the  thorough  cleaning  of 
the  old  privies,  the  carpenters  begin  the  installation 
of  the  privy  boxes — each  box  containing  its  required 
number  of  cans.  This  last  step  in  the  work  of  install- 
ing the  system  should  be  carried  out  in  an  energetic 
and  businesslike  way  on  schedule  time.  Upon  complet- 
ing the  installation  of  the  system,  the  town  is  entitled 
to  a  'boost'  and  a  sanitation  celebration  is  in  order. 

"Through  sanitary  inspection,  promulgations  by  the 
municipal  authorities,  coordinated  efforts  of  civic  or- 
ganizations, newspaper  articles  and  the  distribution  of 
health  bulletins,  the  people  generally  of  the  community 
should  be  impressed  with  the  fact  that  a  sanitary-privy 
system  can  not  take  care  of  itself,  and  that  intelligent 
cooperation  from  them  in  the  use  and  upkeep  of  the 
privies  is  essential." 

Local  Public  Health  Association 

Looking  forward  to  the  time  when  a  governmental 
cooperative  system  of  public  health  and  sanitation  may 
be  established  on  a  taxation  basis,  in  some  sections  the 
formation  of  a  local  public  health  association  is  being 
recommended.  In  perfecting  such  an  organization,  the 
local  leader  should  secure  the  support  of  enthusiastic 
and  influential  citizens  and  representatives  of  various 
important  community  interests  or  organizations  through 
personal  solicitation.  It  is  well  to  call  a  preliminary 
public  meeting  to  present  the  community's  need  of 
health  work  and  the  proposed  solution — the  formation 


190  Rural  Organisation 

of  a  local  health  association,  and  to  present  local  sta- 
tistics for  infant  mortality,  deaths  from  contagious 
diseases,  probable  amount  of  ill  health  and  the  eco- 
nomic cost  of  disease.  A  prominent  citizen  and  an 
experienced  public  health  worker  may  be  secured  to 
make  short  addresses. 

If  the  people  present  at  such  a  meeting  consider  it 
timely  to  take  further  action,  let  them  vote  for  the 
organization  of  a  local  public  health  association  to 
systematize  and  to  unite  all  public  health  work  into 
one  harmonious  whole.  (Many  organizations  are  tack- 
ling the  health  situation,  and  their  work  often  over- 
laps.) The  next  step  will  be  to  adopt  a  constitution, 
subject  to  change  or  amendment  if  desired  later,  and 
elect  a  temporary  board  of  directors.  Directors  and 
leaders  in  the  local  central  health  organization  move- 
ment should  present  the  health  needs  to  the  various 
organizations  in  the  community,  and  local  organiza- 
tions, such  as  the  American  Legion,  women's  clubs, 
chamber  of  commerce,  etc.,  should  be  asked  to  affiliate 
with  the  local  public  health  association  in  developing 
a  definite  community  health  program. 

Such  a  program  may  include  a  permanent  tubercu- 
losis clinic,  baby  clinic  or  a  health  center ;  the  establish- 
ment of  a  local  hospital  or  a  nursing  association  to  be 
supported  by  public  funds. 

QUESTIONS 

1.   What  are  the  differences  in  the  sanitation  and  health  needs 
of  the  pioneer  and  of  the  dweller  in  a  settled  community? 


Sanitation  191 

2.  What  is  the  city  administration  method  of  maintaining  sani- 

tation and  health? 

3.  Why  has  independence  with  regard  to  sanitation  and  health 

prevailed  longer  in  the  country  than  in  the  city? 

4.  Name  some  rural  diseases  due  to  lack  of  proper  sanitation. 

5.  What  is  the  percentage  of   responsibility  in  sanitation  and 

health,  that  should  be  borne  by  the  town  center? 

6.  How  are  the  small  cities  improving  in  sanitation? 

7.  How  may  the  people  of  a  small  village  provide  for  proper 

community  sanitation? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  "a  rural  health  nurse"? 

9.  Why  is  the  maintenance  of  sanitation  and  health  a  govern- 

mental   function?      What    governmental    agencies    might 
properly  cooperate  in  performing  this  function? 

10.  What  is  the  peace-time  program  of  the  American  Red  Cross  ? 

11.  Describe  a  community  clean-up  campaign. 

12.  By  what   methods  may  the   privy   system   of   a   village  be 

properly  organized? 

13.  What  is  a  local  public  health  association? 

RESEARCH  PROBLEMS 

1.  To   what   extent   has    this   community   sanitation   problems 

similar  to  those  of  entirely  city  communities? 

2.  In  the  city  center  of  this  rural  community,  what  disposal  is 

made  of  garbage?     Are  outside  privies  in  use,  and  if  so, 
how  could  they  be  made  more  sanitary? 

3.  If  there  is  a  water  system,  how  might  it  be  improved?    If 

not,  how  might  one  be  installed? 

4.  What  diseases  have  been  epidemic  in  this  community  during 

the  past  few  years,  and  how  might  the  recurrence  of  such 
epidemics  be  prevented? 

5.  Should  this  community  support  a  public  health  nurse? 

6.  Should  this  county  support  a  salaried  county  physician  with 

necessary  assistants? 

7.  Should  there  be  here  a  hospital  and  health  center? 

8.  Is  there  any  local  organization  for  sanitation  and  health? 

Is  it  desirable  to  have  such  an  organization,  and  if  so, 
what  one  could  best  function? 


192  Rural  Organization 

9.   Does   the   town    center    of    this    community   need    clean-up 
days? 

10.  Are  the  farm  homes  sanitary? 

11.  Are  the  farm  premises  kept  in  sanitary  condition,  especially 

with    regard    to    drinking    water,    breeding    places     for 
flies,  etc.? 

12.  Are  schoolhouses  and  churches  kept  in  a  sanitary  condition? 


CHAPTER  III 

RECREATION 

The  Community  Needs  Play 

"ALL  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy" 
was  a  slogan  that,  during  an  individualistic  period, 
came  to  the  rescue  of  many  a  lad  who  yearned  to  ex- 
press his  natural  instinct  to  play.  It  is  just  as  true 
that  all  work  and  no  play  makes  an  agricultural  com- 
munity a  dull  place  in  which  to  live. 

It  is  in  performing  the  function  of  recreation  that 
the  community  idea  has  really  been  brought  to  the 
forefront;  because  in  our  play  life  we  instinctively 
form  into  groups  to  secure  greater  pleasure  out  of 
the  larger  cooperation.  Recreation  is  as  important  as 
any  of  the  community  functions,  but  no  more  impor- 
tant than  the  others.  Often  community  workers  are 
inclined  to  develop  programs  that  seem  to  indicate 
their  belief  that  all  community  activity  which  needs 
direction  is  in  the  region  of  recreation.  This  has  been 
especially  true  in  the  attempt  to  apply  city  ideas  to 
country  life.  It  has  been  assumed  that  semethmg-fflttst 
be  done  to  "keep  them  on  the  farm/'  and  that  the 
great  necessity  to  that  end  is  to  bring  intp_jhe.,agri- 
cuftural ^cojrnmunity  the  same  sort  of  recreation  facili- 

193 


194  Rural  Organisation 

ties  as  exist  in  the  city.  This  is  a  gross  injustice  to 
American  rural  youth.  These  are  attracted  to  their 
places  in  life  by  exactly  the  same  things  which  attract 
the  best  of  any  nation's  youth — and  those  things  are 
not  merely  the  opportunities  for  an  abundance  of  recre- 
ation. An  opportunity  to  make  a  good  living  for  one's 
self  and  those  who  may  later  be  dependent  upon  him, 
the  ordinary  comforts  of  life,  and  good  educational 
facilities — these  will  keep  the  young  people  in  the  rural 
community — and  if  they  are  kept  there  by  the  com- 
munity meeting  these  demands  of  common  justice,  they 
will  develop  and  cooperate  in  the  right  sort  of  recrea- 
tional life.  For  city  leaders  to  demand  food  at  such  a 
low  price  that  the  farmer  makes  very  little  profit  in 
its  production,  so  that  he  is  not  able  to  support  com- 
munity institutions  which  offer  opportunities  equal  to 
those  offered  by  city  institutions, — and  then  for  the 
i  same  leaders  to  talk  of  "keeping  them  on  the  farm" 
{iby  providing  a  recreational  program  for  that  especial 
purpose,  is  manifestly  unfair. 

Grows  Out  of  Right  Relationship  in  Community 
Essentials 

Rural  recreation  always  develops  harmoniously  with 
the  development  of  other  rural  functions.  An  illustra- 
tion may  be  drawn  from  the  pioneer  days,  for  exam- 
ple, in  southern  Indiana.  The  social  functions  were 
the  "log  rolling,"  the  "corn  husking,"  the  "barn  dance," 
and  the  "basket  dinner,"  along  with  making  sugar  in 


Recreation  195 

the  maple  grove,  and  other  such  seasonal  recreational 
functions.  Every  one  of  them  was  developed  in  defi- 
nite relation  to  some  other  necessary  function.  The 
early  settler  came  into  a  timber  country,  chopped  down 
several  acres  of  trees,  trimmed  and  burned  the 
branches — and  time  for  plowing  and  planting  was  ap- 
proaching. The  logs  must  be  rolled  off  the  clearing; 
it  was  too  great  a  task  for  him  to  accomplish  alone; 
therefore  the  neighbors  came  in  to  help.  They  all 
came, — and  since  all  the  "folks"  were  there  for  this  job 
of  log  rolling,  the  day  was  finished  with  a  splendid 
type  of  recreational  enjoyment.  The  recreation  was 
but  a  function  which  needed  expressing  as  the  result 
of  a  hard  day's  serious  work,  and  because  the  joy  of 
neighborliness  suggested  a  play  period.  The  "corn 
husking"  was  one  way  in  which  a  number  of  neigh- 
bors demonstrated  the  truth  of  the  proverb,  "Many 
hands  make  light  work."  Its  primary  purpose  was  to 
husk  the  corn,  and  with  the  husking  of  the  corn  grew 
up  many  enjoyable  recreational  features.  The  "barn 
dance"  was  the  finishing  ceremony  of  the  barn-raising, 
the  primary  purpose  of  which  was  to  raise,  by  the  help 
of  many  neighborly  hands,  the  heavy  walls  of  a  big 
barn  which  the  pioneer  himself  was  building.  He 
would  have  been  a  poor  host  who  would  not  have  pro- 
vided some  sort  of  recreation  to  his  neighbors  in  ex- 
change for  their  kindly  service  to  him;  but  the  main 
purpose  of  their  coming  together  was  to  raise  the 
barn.  The  "basket  dinner,"  with  all  of  its  enjoyable 
features,  was  the  necessary  accompanying  function  in 


196  Rural  Organisation 

a  time  when  people  spent  several  hours  at  the  country 
church,  where  a  meal  could  be  provided  for  in  no  other 
way;  with  a  lengthy  morning  service  of  worship,  a 
basket  dinner  with  its  social  feature,  and  a  lengthy 
and  devout  afternoon  service  of  worship;  then  Sun- 
day was  over,  and,  released  from  the  restraint,  the 
youngsters  enjoyed  the  closing  hours  of  the  day  in 
such  recreational  ways  as  pleased  them  most.  Maple 
sugar  time  down  in  the  grove  was  the  occasion  for 
great  sport,  sledding,  watching  in  groups  by  the  sap 
far  into  the  moonlit  nights,  with  story-telling  and  the 
added  zest  of  the  possibility  of  a  wild  animal  lurking 
near — this  was  the  way  in  which  recreation  accom- 
panied the  really  serious  business  of  life. 

While  community  life  is  not  primarily  for  the  pur- 
pose of  recreation,  yet  recreation  must  be  recognized 
as  one  of  the  important  functions  of  such  life.  While 
it  is  not  a  proper  objective  in  itself,  yet  it  is  for  an 
important  end — namely,  that  the  community  may  be 
"re-created"  to  serve  well  in  performing  the  serious 
and  fundamental  functions  of  organized  life. 

Pleasurable  Outlet  for  all  Group  Action 

It  would  be  unfortunate  to  attempt  to  institution- 
alize recreation,  and  have  it  conducted  too  separately 
from  other  activities,  because  it  is  a  necessary  accom- 
paniment of  every  other  community  function.  The 
stockholders  in  a  cooperative  store  meet  for  business 
and  take  off  the  strain  of  serious  consideration  by  an 


Recreation  1 97 

evening  of  pleasure  following  the  business  meeting. 
The  members  of  the  farm  bureau  may  conduct  the 
business  of  the  annual  meeting  at  a  county  farm  bu- 
reau picnic,  with  all  the  old-fashioned  sports  added. 
The  national  farm  loan  association  keeps  interest  keen 
by  accompanying  social  activities.  "Good  roads  day" 
programs,  where  properly  arranged,  have  recreational 
features.  So  all  the  serious  activities  are  lightened  and 
made  more  interesting  by  this  companion  function, 
"recreation." 

Education  and  Recreation  Closely  Related 

Sn  closely  is  rprrpatjpn  allied  to  education,  that  fre- 
quently  certain  phases  of  one  may  properly  be  con- 
sidered as  a  part  of  the  other.  It  is  a  mattpr  of  com- 
mon knowledge  that  properly  supervised  recreation  is 
educational.  This  is  true  of  any  kind  of  organized 
games,  and  these  may  well  be  used  to  educate  the  com- 
munity to  the  importance  of  group  action.  The  exten- 
sion of  kindergarten  work  is  also  proving  that  a  cer- 
tain percentage  of  educational  activity  can  be  made 
truly  recreational. 

Probably  it  is  for  the  reason  of  the  very  close  rela- 
tionship between  these  two  functions  that  community 
recreational  life  naturally  centers  at  the  school.  Here 
we  have  all  the  young  life  of  the  community;  here  the 
serious  strain  of  prolonged  study  calls  for  recess  pe- 
riods in  order  that  the  body  and  mind  may  be  refreshed 
for  the  purpose  of  further  application  to  studious  pur- 


198  Rural  Organization 

suits.  This  requires,  in  modern  times,  a  certain  amount 
of  equipment,  both  indoor  gymnasium  and  outdoor 
playground;  and  with  this  already  assembled  for  the 
youth,  it  is  but  natural  that  the  adults  should  also  find 
the  schoolhouse  and  premises  the  natural  place  for 
the  performance  of  the  function  of  recreation.  In  a 
properly  organized  community  there  will  also  be  em- 
ployed, preferably  on  school  funds,  a  play  supervisor, 
and  his  services  will  be  extended  to  adults  as  well  as 

to  children.    The  play_p_f_..ndii1ts  i<^  pprVmps^mnrp  impor- 

tant_even  than_tV  play  r>f  rViilHrpn  ;  fnr^the  rapidly 
soa-  is  in  more  ocriouG  n 


"re-created"  than  is  the  growing  j4iilfL  —  Group  games 
of  adults  also  bring  them  together  on  a  different  plane 
from  that  of  money-making,  and  teach  them  fair  play 
and  square  dealing,  which  are  essentials  in  any  success- 
ful community  action.  People  who  play  well  together 
work  well  together. 

A  reorganization  of  school  activities_along  jnodern 
Lui£sjjLoften  the  most  natural  approach  to  the  proper 
playlife  of  a  community.  A  district  school  which  as- 
sembles  regularly  from  ten  to  fifteen  children  ranging 
in  age  from  seven  to  sixteen  years  cannot  provide  for 
baseball,  basketball,  football,  or  any  such  games,  be- 
cause there  are  not  enough  children  of  equal  age  and 
size  to  form  two  teams.  It  is  even  difficult  to  keep  up 
interest  in  running  games,  such  as  "duck  on  the  rock," 
"drop  the  handkerchief,"  "flying  dutchman,"  and  the 
like,  because  so  few  children  of  such  unequal  ages  and 
sizes  cannot  with  any  great  enjoyment  or  safety  co- 


Recreation  199 

operate  in  such  games.  With  the  school  district  small, 
and  the  school  building  a  mere  "band-box,"  it  also 
becomes  impossible  to  present  any  real  recreational 
exhibition  features,  because  of  lack  of  meeting  space, 
lack  of  exhibitors,  and  lack  of  audience.  Therefore, 
because  of  this  very  restriction  of  our  rural  school  sys- 
tem, community  recreation  dies  out.  Moreover,  with 
the  demand  for  a  high  school  education,  and  no  high 
school  in  the  community,  those  who  are  the  natural 
inspiration  to  play  life — the  progressive  youths — are 
out  of  the  community,  at  a  big  city  center,  securing  a 
high  school  education. 

One  has  only  to  note  the  tremendous  and  almost 
immediate  change  in  this  matter  upon  the  advent  of 
a  consolidated  school  and  a  community  high  school 
to  be  convinced  of  the  truth  of  this  argument.  Where- 
as before,  those  who  were  eagerly  advocating  some 
recreational  program  to  "keep  them  on  the  farm" 
found  scarcely  any  response,  now  with  the  larger  group 
of  children  assembled  at  the  consolidated  school,  with 
a  twice-a-day  happy  ride  in  the  school  bus,  and  the 
young  people  from  the  larger  community  brought  to- 
gether five  days  in  the  week  at  the  community  high 
school,  the  community  automatically  begins  to  perform 
its  recreational  function.  Games  and  athletic  contests 
of  all  kinds  continue  throughout  the  entire  school  year, 
\vith  recreational  excitement  running  high  among  all 
the  people,  in  favor  of  the  "home  team." 

The  "community  fair,"  with  plenty  of  sports  for 
adults,  is  held  at  the  building  and  on  the  grounds. 


200  Rural  Organisation 

This  all  comes  about  without  any  agitation  for  "com- 
munity recreation,"  or  for  the  need  of  providing  sports 
to  hold  the  young  people  in  the  community ;  the  young 
people  are  held  in  the  community  because  of  adequate 
educational  provisions,  and  the  satisfying  recreational 
life  follows. 

Chorus  singing,  pageantry  and  dramatics  form  an- 
other combination  of  recreation  and  education  of  a 
community  nature.  With  the  larger  building  provided, 
with  ample  stage  room,  and  with  all  the  people  re- 
tained in  the  community,  these  forms  of  recreation 
are  capable  of  almost  unlimited  presentation  and  varia- 
tion. In  pageantry  especially  is  there  a  splendid  oppor- 
tunity for  community  action.  In  this  there  may  be 
easily  combined  singing,  costuming,  dancing  and 
games,  all  in  dramatic  expression.  The  real  community 
pageant  is  itself  built  out  of  local  traditions  and  his- 
tory; it  aims  to  make  use  of  a  mass  of  actors  repre- 
sentative of  community  life;  it  brings  these  people  to- 
gether at  regular  intervals  for  rehearsals  which  in 
themselves  are  recreational;  it  provides  for  group  re- 
hearsals of  chorus,  orchestra,  dancers,  etc. ;  and  in  its 
final  presentation  permits  the  entire  community  not 
only  to  enjoy  looking  on  but  to  enter  heartily  into 
the  mass  singing  of  patriotic  airs,  popular  songs,  and 
old-fashioned  hymns. 

The  range  of  the  possibilities  of  play  life  is  so  great 
that  a  little  ingenuity  on  the  part  of  the  local  leader 
and  the  people  will  result  in  a  fine  performance  of  the 
recreational  function  by  the  entire  community.  In 


Recreation  201 

this  form  of  expression  is  realized,  more  than  in  any 
other,  the  real  goal  of  our  activities — "to  live  happily 
together." 

TYPICAL   ORGANIZATIONS   AND    PROJECTS 

The  Township  or  Community  Play  Day  * 

The  township  or  community  play  day  for  rural 
schools  is  a  day  of  play  among  all  rural,  graded,  and 
parochial  schools  of  the  township  or  .community,  with 
one  school  taking  the  part  of  host.  Not  only  do  the 
teachers  and  children  attend,  but  the  adults  of  each 
community  as  well.  The  school  selected  is  easy  for 
all  to  get  to,  and,  while  it  may  not  be  at  the  geographi- 
cal center  of  the  town  or  of  the  community,  it  is  as 
good  an  all-around  place  for  meeting  as  may  be  found. 

The  play  day  affords  an  occasion  for  one  neighbor 
to  meet  another  and  for  people  from  different  parts 
of  the  township  to  become  acquainted.  It  is  a  means 
of  establishing  companionship  between  old  and  young, 
for  there  is  nothing  more  effective  for  the  purpose  of 
arousing  a  common  interest  than  the  merry  contests 
which  grow  out  of  the  various  games. 

It  is  a  means  of  getting  good  games  planted  so  that 
children  will  play  them  at  school,  at  home,  and  in  other 
available  places. 

No  teacher  need  be  afraid  of  overemphasizing  the 

*  Play  Days  in  Rural  Schools — Circular  118,  by  C.  J.  Galpin 
and  Eleanore  Weisman,  Extension  Service,  College  of  Agricul- 
ture, University  of  Wisconsin. 


202  Rural  Organisation 

interest  in  games.  Fun,  sheer  fun,  is  a  part  of  the 
heritage  of  the  race,  and  few  things  at  our  command 
call  forth  such  spontaneous,  fresh-hearted  laughter  as 
a  good  game. 

The  play  day  movement  seeks  to  reach  the  adults 
as  well  as  the  children,  so  that  they  shall  have  the 
courage  occasionally  to  take  a  day  off  from  work. 
The  pleasure  to  the  children  is  equaled  by  the  enjoy- 
ment and  benefits  that  are  derived  by  the  grown-ups 
from  sharing  in  this  day  of  fun  and  merrymaking. 

One  of  the  easiest  ways  of  organizing  township  play 
days  is  to  have  the  matter  presented  to  the  teachers 
during  the  county  teachers'  institute.  The  games  can 
be  decided  upon  there  and  learned  by  all  of  the  teach- 
ers. If  play  day  is  to  be  a  county-wide  policy,  the 
county  superintendents  may  appoint  a  temporary  chair- 
man for  each  town,  who  will  call  a  meeting  of  her 
teachers  some  time  before  the  close  of  the  institute. 

If  the  teachers  of  a  township  decide  to  have  such 
a  day,  the  next  step  is  to  elect  play  day  officers,  a 
president  and  secretary-treasurer.  Committees  on  ar- 
rangement, lunch,  program,  and  games,  consisting  of 
two  members  each,  are  usually  elected  or  appointed  at 
this  time. 

If  a  county  superintendent  does  not  think  it  wise 
to  make  the  play  day  general  throughout  the  county, 
he  or  the  supervising  teachers  may  call  together  the 
teachers  of  a  particular  township  which  is  known  to 
be  favorably  disposed  and  effect  an  informal  organiza- 
tion of  teachers. 


Recreation  203 

Any  teacher  who  is  interested  may,  of  course,  take 
the  lead  and  write  to  the  county  superintendent  asking 
for  the  names  of  teachers  in  that  particular  community 
or  town,  and  inquiring  as  to  where  a  play  day  may  be 
held  so  as  to  make  it  convenient  for  the  schools  inter- 
ested. She  may  then  call  a  meeting  of  these  teachers 
to  discuss  plans  or  take  the  liberty  of  inviting  them 
to  her  school.  In  these  days  when  practically  all  rural 
homes  are  connected  by  telephone  and  automobile,  it 
will  be  an  easy  matter  to  make  arrangements. 

It  may  add  to  the  interest  and  enjoyment  of  the 
day  to  have  definite  plans  made  for  a  regular  "play 
day  costume."  This  costume  should  be  something  more 
substantial  than  the  "best"  dress  or  suit,  but  at  the 
same  time  it  should  have  a  festive  air. 

If  a  teacher  starts  several  weeks  before,  she  may 
be  able  to  be  of  some  assistance  in  selecting  styles  and 
patterns  for  the  girls  and  mothers  of  her  neighbor- 
hood. 

After  lunch  a  short  program  may  be  given.  The 
singing  of  patriotic  and  folk  songs  is  appropriate,  as 
are  flag  drills  and  flag  salutes.  Each  school  may  be 
asked  to  memorize  one  of  the  salutes,  and  each  school 
in  turn  may  march  up  to  the  flag  and  salute  it,  or  all 
the  children  as  a  group  may  give  the  salute. 

The  committee  on  plays  and  games  should  arrange 
a  varied  program  of  such  a  nature  as  will  require  ac- 
tive effort  on  the  part  of  children  and  adults.  The 
purpose  of  this  day  is  to  have  active  play  on  the  part 
of  all  present,  and  not  mere  entertainment  provided  by 


204  Rural  Organisation 

a  few.  The  committee  should  urge  every  teacher  to 
have  her  children  come  prepared  to  play  some  of  the 
competitive  games,  such  as  potato  race,  prisoner's 
base,  relay  races,  tug-of-war,  and  so  forth.  Some  of 
these  games  may  be  played  by  opposing  teams  of  six 
or  eight  members  each. 

Not  all  of  the  games  should  be  of  a  competitive 
type.  There  are  many  good  games  of  a  stirring  nature 
in  which  the  team  element  does  not  enter.  Provision 
must  be  made  for  games  which  both  children  and 
adults  may  play  together.  Such  games  are  Cat  and 
Mouse,  Pussy  Wants  a  Corner,  Last  Couple  Out,  Rab- 
bit's Nest,  Bingo,  Three  Deep,  Forty  Ways  of  Get- 
ting There.  These  games  furnish  an  opportunity  for 
the  parents  to  enjoy  their  children. 

The  games  should  not  be  made  too  serious.  Laugh- 
ter and  frolic  must  bind  the  events  of  the  day  together. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  there  be  a  formal  program, 
but  the  games  should  be  planned  so  that  the  events 
may  be  staged  in  some  kind  of  order. 

Community  Field  Day 

Perhaps  the  best  example  of  an  annual  "field  day" 
of  a  community-wide  nature  is  the  one  conducted  for 
a  number  of  years  at  Amenia,  N.  Y.  In  a  pamphlet 
of  information  published  in  1914  the  purpose  and 
plan  of  this  annual  event  was  outlined. 

Amenia,  N.  Y.,  is  on  the  Harlem  Division  of  the 
New  York  Central  Railroad,  85  miles  north  of  New 


Recreation  205 

York  City.  The  Field  Day  grounds  are  27  miles  by 
excellent  roads  east  of  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. ;  2  miles 
from  Sharon,  Conn. ;  1 5  miles  from  Millbrook,  N.  Y. ; 
8  miles  from  Lakeville,  Conn. ;  24  miles  from  Pawling, 
N.  Y.,  and  24  miles  from  New  Milford,  Conn.  Pough- 
keepsie, with  a  population  of  28,000,  is  the  nearest 
city. 

The  Amenia  Field  Day,  inaugurated  in  1910,  is  an 
experiment  in  rural  "cooperative  recreation."  It  is 
part  of  a  nation-wide  effort  to  add  to  the  social  at- 
tractiveness of  country  life.  One  day  a  year  the  peo- 
ple of  Amenia  invite  the  whole  countryside  to  a  free 
day  of  wholesome  recreation,  without  gambling,  fakirs, 
vulgar  side  shows,  or  any  of  the  other  objectionable 
features  of  commercialized  amusement.  Admission  is 
absolutely  free,  and  the  undertaking  is  dependent  on 
the  cooperative  support  of  the  whole  community. 

Collier's  Weekly  says :  "Though  more  than  three 
times  as  many  persons  took  part  in  this  year's  field 
day  as  appeared  at  the  first  one,  the  original  idea  has 
not  been  changed,  and  the  gathering  has  not  yet  be- 
come unwieldy.  In  1910  the  attendance  was  estimated 
at  3000;  in  1911  at  5000;  in  1912  at  8000;  and 
this  year  (1913)  it  exceeded  10,000." 

The  following  principles  of  "cooperative  recreation" 
have  been  printed  on  the  programs  of  previous  years : 

1.  You  have  got  to  make  the  country  as  attractive 
socially  as  the  city  if  you  want  to  keep  the  young  folks 
on  the  farms. 


206  Rural  Organization 

2.  There's  a  good  deal  of  work  in  the  country,  but 
most  of  our  boys  and  girls  have  forgotten  how  to  play. 

3.  Baseball  is  a  splendid  game,  but  it  isn't  the  only 
one.   Every  healthy  boy  should  be  interested  in  at  least 
half  a  dozen  others.    Don't  merely  watch  others  play 
games;  play  them  yourself! 

4.  You  can't  drink  strong  drink  and  be  an  athlete. 
Get  your  boys  interested  in  honest  and  healthy  sports, 
and  save  them  from  drink  and  dissipation. 

5.  Contests  and  competitions  are  not  the  main  thing. 
"The  strong  compete  and  grow  stronger;  the  weak 
look  on  and  grow  weaker."    The  main  thing  is  play. 
Learn  the  great  lesson  that  play  is  just  as  necessary 
for  your  sons  as  work. 

6.  The  community  should  help  to  run  its  own  re- 
creations.  Its  festivals  should  be  not  only  for  the  peo- 
ple, but  of  and  by  the  people. 

The  Amenia  Field  Day  Committee,  which  has  had 
charge  of  the  celebration  in  previous  years,  has  been 
reorganized  and  incorporated  as  the  Amenia  Field  Day 
Association.  This  association  is  governed  by  a  board 
of  thirty  directors,  including  both  men  and  women,  all 
of  whom  are  legal  residents  of  Amenia  and  adjoining 
towns.  Membership  in  the  association  is  open  to  every 
citizen  of  Amenia  and  the  surrounding  territory,  upon 
payment  of  the  annual  dues  of  one  dollar. 

The  actual  work  of  preparation  is  carried  on,  under 
the  direction  of  the  executive  officers,  by  ten  commit- 
tees, appointed  by  the  board  of  directors.  But,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  members  of  these  committees,  scores  of 


Recreation  207 

other  people  in  Amenia  and  vicinity  find  work  to  do 
in  preparation  for  the  great  day  of  the  year.  The 
grounds  must  be  gotten  ready;  the  village  streets  and 
houses,  farm  wagons,  floats,  and  other  vehicles  must 
be  decorated;  transportation  and  a  multitude  of  other 
details  must  be  arranged;  and  games  and  sports  must 
be  practiced.  In  1913  an  expert  teacher  was  employed 
by  the  association,  in  advance  of  Field  Day,  to  give 
lessons  in  folk  dancing  and  various  games  to  boys  and 
girls;  and  classes  were  arranged  for  this  purpose  in 
Amenia,  Sharon,  Wassaic,  and  Pawling.  A  field  day 
like  this  is,  therefore,  not  a  single  day's  work  or  pleas- 
ure, but  is  a  source  of  happy  activity  and  an  incitement 
to  public  spirit  for  at  least  two  months. 

The  association  has  also  enjoyed  the  active  co- 
operation of  the  Duchess  County  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  the 
Duchess  County  Farm  Bureau.  The  district  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  the  master  of  the  Pomona  Grange, 
Boy  Scout  officials,  clergymen,  teachers,  and  other  pub- 
lic-spirited citizens  throughout  the  country  have,  at 
various  times,  volunteered  their  assistance;  and  five 
local  granges  have  competed  for  the  prizes  offered  for 
the  most  beautifully  decorated  grange  float.  Soft 
drinks,  ice  cream,  sandwiches,  and  other  edibles  are 
sold  on  the  grounds,  and  their  sale  has  furnished  one 
of  the  most  important  sources  of  the  association's  in- 
come. Most  people  bring  their  own  lunch  baskets,  and 
picnic  on  the  grounds;  but  they  expect  to  find  edibles 
of  various  sorts  which  they  can  purchase  as  they  please. 

The  ideal  of  the  Amenia  movement  is  that  of  com- 


208  Rural  Organisation 

munity  play.  Competitive  sports  have  their  place  in 
the  day's  amusement,  but  they  are  subordinated  to  the 
idea  of  the  play  picnic,  in  which  all,  both  young  and 
old,  may  take  part.  It  is  felt  that  the  people  of  the 
open  country  should  learn  how  to  play,  rather  than 
merely  watch  others,  however  skillful,  play  for  them. 
Besides  the  play  picnic,  with  its  games  for  all  ages  and 
both  sexes,  the  features  of  previous  celebrations  have 
included  folk  dancing  by  young  girls ;  tableaux ;  a  base- 
ball game  between  local  teams,  stories  for  children,  Boy 
Scout  drills  and  competitions;  a  Punch  and  Judy  and 
other  shows  for  little  children;  trap  shooting;  a  grand 
march;  tug-of-war;  potato,  sack,  obstacle  and  other 
races;  speeches  by  distinguished  men  and  women  on 
subjects  of  interest  to  a  rural  community;  a  ten-mile 
parade  "around  the  mountain,"  with  prizes  for  the 
most  beautifully  decorated  farm  wagons,  grange  floats 
and  other  vehicles;  a  band  concert  and  parade  in  the 
evening.  In  addition  to  these,  an  agricultural  demon- 
stration, with  special  reference  to  alfalfa  growing,  un- 
der the  supervision  of  the  Duchess  County  Farm  Bu- 
reau and  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  was  in- 
cluded on  the  program  of  the  fourth  annual  celebra- 
tion. 

The  Community  Pageant 

The  community  pageant  may  be  made  a  special  fea- 
ture, if  not  the  leading  feature,  of  local  recreational 
life  for  an  entire  season.  Often  when  recreational 
activities  have  drifted  to  a  low  plane,  a  substitution 


Recreation  209 

of  pageantry  will  correct  the  evil  without  creating  the 
strife  which  is  engendered  by  direct  opposition.  In 
pageantry  it  is  possible  to  make  use  of  the  chorus,  the 
orchestra,  the  band,  costuming,  dancing,  games,  and 
dramatic  acting.  Since  from  six  to  nine  months  is 
necessary  for  the  training  period  for  a  big  community 
pageant,  it  is  readily  seen  that  these  features  con- 
ducted for  such  a  period  will  occupy  all  of  the  recrea- 
tional life  of  an  entire  community. 

Mr.  Louis  N.  Parker,  the  "father  of  modern  pagean- 
try," defines  it  as  the  representation  of  the  history  of 
a  community,  in  dramatic  form,  from  the  earliest  pe- 
riod to  some  later  point,  forming  a  fitting  climax.  He 
goes  on  to  say :  * 

This  is  set  forth  in  verse  and  prose  of  the  most 
direct  sort,  and  is  embellished  with  choruses,  songs, 
dances,  marches,  and  every  legitimate  spectacular  ad- 
junct. It  is  acted  in  some  beautiful  and  historical  spot, 
which  is  left  without  any  artificial  embellishment  what- 
ever. It  is  acted  by  the  citizens  of  the  town  them- 
selves, their  wives,  their  children,  and  their  friends. 
It  is  acted  in  a  spirit  of  simplicity  and  reverence,  and 
the  audience  must  bring  the  same  spirit  in  watching 
its  progress.  It  is  not  a  stage  play.  It  is  a  lofty  and 
dignified  panorama  of  the  town's  history.  And  it  is 
an  act  of  local  patriotism.  And  out  of  local  patriotism 
grows  that  wider  patriotism  which  binds  the  people 
together.  Some  pageant-masters  allow  themselves  to 

*  A  Manual  of  Pageantry,  bulletin  of  Extension  Division, 
Indiana  University,  June,  1915,  by  Robert  Withington. 


210  Rural  Organization 

show  a  scene  in  the  region  from  which  the  first  set- 
tlers departed — be  it  England,  Germany,  or  an  eastern 
state;  others  content  themselves  with  showing  the  ar- 
rival of  the  first  settlers  and  the  foundation  of  the 
community.  Indians  play  a  large  part  in  the  opening 
episode  of  many  an  American  pageant;  and  the  battles 
of  our  ancestors  with  the  savages,  or  their  struggles 
with  inhospitable  Nature,  may  be  made  to  impress  us 
with  a  keen  sense  of  the  hardships  they  underwent  to 
lay  the  foundations  of  our  flourishing  town.  Many  an 
American  pageant  contains  also  a  scene  showing  the 
departure  of  troops  for  the  Civil  War,  and  their  re- 
turn after  the  establishment  of  peace. 

The  historical  "episodes"  reproduce — without  the 
technique  of  one-act  plays — scenes  of  importance  in 
the  past  of  the  town.  They  are  commonly  linked  to- 
gether by  some  sort  of  "chorus"  or  expositor,  who 
briefly  sketches  the  intervening  development  of  the 
community  and  prepares  for  the  scene  to  come.  Much 
latitude  is  here  allowed.  The  "chorus"  may  be  made 
up  of  early  settlers  or  allegorical  figures ;  some  pageant- 
masters  use  the  dangerous  device  of  symbolical  danc- 
ing in  the  interludes  between  episodes — dangerous,  be- 
cause the  symbolism  is  not  always  clear.  Folk-dances 
or  stately  minuets  may  be  introduced  at  appropriate 
times  in  the  episodes  themselves;  but  symbolism  and 
history  should  be  kept  carefully  apart. 

At  the  end,  all  the  performers  in  the  order  of  the 
episodes  are  commonly  reviewed  by  a  personification 


Recreation  211 

of  the  city  or  state;  here,  where  the  scene  is  not  his- 
torical, a  certain  amount  of  symbolism  may  be  intro- 
duced ;  Aspiration  may  join  the  personified  community ; 
the  Spirits  of  the  Mountains,  Forests,  Rivers,  Valleys, 
or  Plains  may  be  put  to  flight — as  at  St.  Johnsbury, 
Vermont,  in  1912 — by  the  Spirit  of  Civilization.  Oc- 
casionally the  "Spirit  of  America"  looks  on,  at  the 
end  of  a  pageant,  while  various  folk-dances — French, 
German,  Scandinavian,  Polish,  or  Italian — are  done 
by  local  nationalities. 

All  successful  pageants  are  done  by  voluntary  labor ; 
the  local  poets  and  dramatists  who — under  the  pageant- 
master — write  the  episodes,  the  local  musicians  who 
compose  the  music  and,  in  some  cases,  perform  it,  each 
gives  his  services.  All  the  costumes  and  all  properties 
are  produced  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  locality,  volun- 
tarily; each  player,  whenever  possible,  furnishes  his 
own  costume;  the  poorer  people  are  indemnified,  but 
never  paid  a  profit.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  hire 
a  professional  orchestra;  but  these  are  the  only  people 
connected  with  the  pageant  (besides  the  pageant-mas- 
ter) who  get  paid,  and  they  are  frequently  not  of  the 
community. 

The  pageant  is  seen  at  its  best  in  the  smaller  city 
or  town.  There  are  so  many  interests  in  a  big  place 
that  every  one  can  not  give  his  attention  and  energy 
to  the  performance ;  and  unless  a  town  gives  its  whole 
life  to  a  pageant,  the  pageant  is  nothing.  Obviously, 
it  is  much  harder  to  develop  community  spirit  in  a 


212  Rural  Organization 

metropolis;  there  are  too  many  different  interests  to 
weave  together.  The  solidarity  which  the  pageant 
leaves  behind  it  is  one  of  its  chief  gifts. 

Pageants  are,  of  course,  frequently  given  in  large 
cities,  and  turn  out  to  be  fairly  successful,  too.  I  do 
not  mean  to  say  that  they  can't  be  given  in  a  large 
place;  but  the  fullest  measure  of  success  comes  when 
every  one  enters  into  the  spirit  of  the  occasion;  and 
this  is  possible  in  a  smaller  town.  Pageants  in  cities 
are  too  apt  to  become  the  affair  of  one  section  or  of 
one  class ;  it  is  obviously  impossible  to  make  every  in- 
habitant of  a  metropolis  feel  the  personal  interest  in 
the  affair,  and  the  personal  responsibility  for  it  which, 
in  the  town  or  village,  helps  the  individual  in  many 
ways  and  draws  the  whole  community  together. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  relative  importance  of  the  function  of  recrea- 

tion in  community  life? 

2.  On  what  foundation  is  a  right  rural  recreational  life  built? 

3.  What  were  the  pioneer  types  of  rural  recreation? 

4.  Would  it  be  feasible  to  institutionalize  recreational  life  and 

if  not,  what  is  its  relationship  to  institutional  activities? 

5.  Why  do  local  institutions  sometimes  fail  in  developing  an 

adequate  recreational  program? 

6.  What  advantage  in  play  life  does  a  high  school  bring  to  a 

rural  community? 

7.  What  is  a  community  play  day  for  rural  schools? 

8.  Describe  a  community  field  day. 

9.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  pageantry  as  a  form 

of  recreational  activity? 


Recreation  213 

RESEARCH  PROBLEMS 

1.  Is    there   a    sufficient   amount   of    recreation   in   this    com- 

munity? 

2.  Is  such  recreation  as  it  engages  in,  of  an  idealistic  character, 

or  is  it  degrading? 

3.  Is  there  opposition  to  present  forms  of  recreation?     If  so, 

what  is  the  nature  of  the  opposition? 

4.  Is  any  attempt  made  to  substitute  preferable  forms? 

5.  Does  the  entire  community  have  any  opportunity  to  engage 

together   in   recreational   activity,   or  do   the  recreational 
groups  represent  small  cliques? 

6.  What  would  be  the  best  plan  of  organizing  the  recreational 

life? 

7.  What  new  forms  of  recreation  would  be  practicable  for  this 

community?    What  leadership  could  best  inaugurate  them? 


CHAPTER  IV 

BEAUTIFICATION 

Urban  and  Rural  Accomplishment 

THE  expression,  "the  city  beautiful,"  indicates  how 
thoroughly  beautification  has  come  to  be  recognized 
as  a  community  function  in  the  great  city.  City  plan- 
ning is  not  only  for  economic  advantage  and  trans- 
portation convenience,  but  to  a  large  extent  for  the 
expression  of  the  beautiful.  While  an  individual  may 
do  much  toward  giving  expression  to  esthetic  instincts 
by  beautifying  his  own  premises,  yet  if  there  is  near  by 
ajvujtisightly  ravine  full  of  rubbishi_or_j_serjes_of_^acant 
Iqtejisedlnnr^umping  ground,  he  alone  can  do  nothing 
toward_community  beautification.  He  may  even  be 
neighbor  to  school  grounds  or^church  grounds  which 
are  bare  and  unsightly. 

In  recent  years  much  has  been  accomplished  by 
cities  in  the  way  of  turning  blighting  spots  of  ugli- 
ness into  places  of  beauty.  A  rambling,  swampy  creek, 
with  a  few  cabins  here  and  there  occupied  by  such 
human  left-overs  as  are  willing  to  live  in  filth,  becomes 
now  a  series  of  sunken  gardens,  well  drained,  with 
attractive  shrubbery  and  flowers,  and  with  inviting 
settees  for  weary  pedestrians.  Open  park  spaces  here 

214 


Beautification  215 

and  there  relieve  the  monotony  of  the  contiguous  busi- 
ness or  manufacturing  or  rooming-house  section.  Fre- 
quently these  improvements  in  the  interest  of  city  beau- 
tification  are  made  at  an  immense  cost,  because  of  the 
value  of  the  property  to  be  used.  Many  times  buildings 
must  be  purchased  and  either  wrecked  or  moved  away 
in  order  to  make  room  for  small  parks  and  open  spaces. 
Property  owners  in  some  cities  have  become  so  accus- 
tomed to  this  sort  of  thing  that  there  is  little  objection 
to  the  levying  of  extra  taxes  for  such  purposes. 

The  rural  community  has  great  advantage  over  the 
city^  in  this  matter,  since  the  open  spaces  are  every- 
where, and  property  even  in  the  small  city  center  has 
not_reached_a_p_rice  which  makes_ it  difficult  to  procure 
for  purpose5_Qf_beaJitifix:ation.  Since  the  esthetic  sense 
yearns  for  a  beautiful  environment,  and  since  indi- 
vidual action  is  not  sufficient  to  produce  a  uniformly 
beautiful  setting,  beautification  becomes  an  important 
function  of  the  agricultural  community. 

This  function  develops  readily  along  with  the  func- 
tion of  sanitation,  because  in  the  process  of  beautify- 
ing, cleanliness  is  likely  to  be  produced,  and  when  the 
community  is  "cleaning  up"  it  is  doubly  easy  to  "paint 
up"  and  generally  beautify  the  surroundings. 

Mutual  Responsibility 

Here,  again,  the  initiative  will  naturally  be  taken 
in  the  place  where  the  people  of  an  entire  community 
unify  their  activities — the  town  center.  For  two  rea- 


216  Rural  Organisation 

sons  the  people  of  the  entire  agricultural  community, 
town  and  country  alike,  should  be  interested  in  beauti- 
fyin^_jJie--€i^--cerLterjL_those__who  live  there  _  wish  to 

and  should  realize  that 
beauty  is  one  attractive  featurej^and  those  who~make 
tMs_jjieir  jtrading  ^nd-^hippingL^oint_are  responsible 
for  the._gxistence  of  such  a  Center  and  therefore  should 
realize  their  responsibility  of  keeping  in  an  attractive 
condition-that- which  th€y~hav£_£l^tted._  Beyond  this, 
as  the  school  and  the  church  come  to  be  centered  where 
the  business  and  shipping  and  mail  service  center,  the 
whole  people,  city  and  country  alike,  unite  their  inter- 
est in  beautifying  the  school  and  church  grounds  and 
environs,  because  in  a  very  peculiar  sense  these  are 
the  possessions  of  the  entire  community. 

When  the  people  get  the  vision  of  beautification  as 
a  community  function,  the  folks  of  the  city  center 
learn  their  responsibility  to  help  keep  the  country-side 
beautiful.  They  cease  to  jumpunsightly  trash  out 
along_thecountry  roads.  It  becomes  unnecessary  for 
farmers  neaFthlf  town  to  put  up  "No  dumping"  signs 
in  depressions  in  their  pastures  near  the  fences.  The 
folks  of  the  small  city  center  learn  to  help  develop  the 
beauty  of  the  entire  community;  such  as  joining  in 
beautifying  the  country  cemetery  and  its  environs, 
sharing  the  burden  and  responsibility  of  making  the 
road-side  attractive,  and,  where  the  district  schools 
still  exist,  aiding  in  the  movement  to  make  the  grounds 
and  buildings  places  of  beauty  of  which  all  the  people 
may  be  proud.  In  certain  instances  the  small  city  cham- 


Beautification  217 

her  of  commerce  has  become  interested  in  helping  to 
secure,  at  cost,  shrubbery  and  trees  and  plants  for  the 
beautifying  of  the  farm  premises  themselves,  and  has 
seen  fit  to  offer  prizes  for  the  best  kept  and  most 
beautiful  farm  yards  as  well  as  for  the  best  city  gar- 
dens and  lawns. 

Because  it  is  their  center  and  they  are  responsible 
for  it,  the  people  of  the  farms  are,  under  proper  con- 
ditions, interested  in  paving  the  small  city  center — in 
the  securing  of  a  "white  way,"  the  development  of  a 
park,  the  planting  of  trees  along  the  parkways  of  the 
streets — and  in  every  legitimate  and  wise  plan  for 
making  the  town  beautiful.  Where  the  community  is 
not  a  unit,  one  of  two  conditions  is  usually  noticeable. 
The  first  is  one  in  which  the  country-side  is  beautiful, 
with  hard-surfaced  roads  well  kept  along  the  road- 
sides, beautiful  farm  homes  with  spacious  lawns, 
while  in  the  village  or  city  center  the  streets  are  full 
of  ruts,  weeds  are  growing  where  parkways  ought  to 
be,  houses  are  unpainted,  trees  are  scraggly  and  un- 
kept,  and  a  general  view  of  ugliness  prevails.  The 
second  is  just  the  reverse.  The  traveler  drives  through 
the  beautiful  streets  of  the  small  city,  between  well- 
kept  parkways,  past  beautiful  homes  and  near  spacious 
parks,  to  come  suddenly  to  a  country-side  with  mis- 
erable roads,  weeds  growing  rank  between  the  road 
and  the  fences,  unkept  farm  yards  and  ugly-looking 
church  yard,  school  yard,  and  country  cemetery. 
Where  the  first  condition  prevails,  it  may  be  an  indi- 
cation that  the  country  part  of  the  community  is  ex- 


218  Rural  Organisation 

ploiting  their  small  city  center.  Where  the  second  con- 
dition prevails,  it  probably  is  a  sign  that  the  dwellers 
in  the  city  center  are  exploiting  the  farmers.  Either 
condition  indicates  that  there  is  no  community  here — 
that  there  are  two  discordant  factions,  the  town  people 
and  the  country  people.  A  community  can  never  per- 
form any  of  its  functions  in  such  a  fashion.  "A 
house  divided  against  itself  cannot  stand." 

Community  Beautifying  Campaign 

A  general  community  beautifying  campaign  may  be 
made  the  cause  of  so  many  worth-while  developments 
that  often  the  whole  community  movement  may  well 
begin  with  this  function.  When  a  community  begins 
to  beautify  itself,  it  starts  to  do  a  lot  of  other  things 
besides:  it  repairs  unsightly  places  in  the  streets,  and 
that  helps  the  good  roads  movement;  it  makes  the 
school  and  church  grounds  and  buildings  attractive, 
helping  to  bring  people  to  these  institutions;  it  cleans 
up  ugly-looking  piles  of  filth,  adding  to  the  health  of 
the  people;  it  obliterates  certain  unattractive  spots  by 
making  them  over  into  playgrounds,  adding  to  re- 
creational facilities ;  it  moves  untidy  piles  of  dry  rub- 
bish, aiding  in  fire  prevention;  it  paints  up  and  cleans 
up  the  dwelling  houses  and  makes  the  people  love  their 
homes  anew.  Often,  therefore,  it  becomes  the  begin- 
ning of  a  revival  of  community  interest  all  along  the 
line. 


Becmtification  219 

TYPICAL   ORGANIZATIONS   AND   PROJECTS 

A  "Community  Beautiful"  Day 

The  beautifying  of  a  rural  community  may  be, in 
the  nature  of  planting  trees  and  shrubbery  in  a  section 
where  few  or  none  have  grown  before,  or  it  may  take 
the  form  of  pruning  and  caring  for  trees  in  a  wooded 
section.  Such  a  community  day  for  the  latter  purpose 
is  described  thus  by  a  participant : 

"A  day  was  decided  upon  and  set  aside  by  the  en- 
tire community  as  'Community  Tree  Day.'  On  this 
day  the  men  and  boys  of  the  little  town  and  surround- 
ing country  assembled  very  early  in  the  morning,  with 
axes,  rakes  and  the  necessary  tools  for  the  work  in 
hand.  Under  the  leadership  of  the  state  forester,  many 
of  the  trees  were  saved  by  careful  pruning,  while  those 
trees  that  were  not  beneficial  as  shade,  and  were  add- 
ing nothing  to  the  general  beauty  of  the  landscape, 
were  cut  down.  Some  of  the  men  brought  teams,  with 
which  the  dead  trees  and  branches  were  hauled  to  an 
open  space  on  the  school  ground.  Here  the  men  and 
older  boys  trimmed  them  ready  for  the  sawmill,  while 
the  smaller  boys  and  even  the  girls  carried  the  branches 
that  were  scattered  over  the  ground,  and  piled  them 
into  very  large  brush  piles. 

"While  this  grand  community  task  was  being  per- 
formed, another  of  a  similar  nature  was  being  accom- 
plished. The  women,  instead  of  bringing  tools,  brought 


220  Rural  Organisation 

baskets  and  boxes  filled  with  all  those  good  eatables 
that  we  usually  associate  with  Thanksgiving  and 
Christmas.  It  was  in  early  autumn,  and  the  weather 
was  ideal.  The  long  tables  were  placed  by  the  side 
of  the  school  house  in  the  shade  of  the  large  trees 
that  surround  it.  When  all  was  prepared,  the  entire 
group  was  assembled,  and  all  enjoyed  the  feast  as  only 
those  can  that  have  met  together  with  a  unity  of 
thought  and  action. 

"After  dinner,  the  state  forester  gave  a  very  helpful 
talk  on  the  care  of  trees,  and  answered  questions  for 
the  benefit  of  those  present,  after  which  the  men  con- 
tinued their  work  with  the  trees  and  the  women  re- 
placed the  remaining  portions  of  food. 

"When  all  the  work  of  the  day  was  over,  the  young 
folks  entertained  themselves  and  the  crowd,  by  play- 
ing outdoor  games. 

"It  was  almost  dark  when  the  last  workman  had 
shouldered  his  ax  and  started  for  home.  The  work  of 
the  day  was  not  yet  fully  completed,  however,  for, 
according  to  the  judgment  of  a  number  of  the  young 
folks,  two  large  brush  piles  in  the  middle  of  the  school 
grounds  were  rather  unbecoming  objects  to  leave,  and 
it  was  suggested  that  all  should  return  in  the  evening 
and  have  a  big  bonfire.  Under  the  leadership  of  the 
school  superintendent,  the  brush  was  soon  made  into 
a  blazing  flame.  All  who  cared  to  do  so,  played  the 
good  old-fashioned  outdoor  games  in  the  light  of  the 
roaring  fire." 


Beau  tifica  tion  221 

Tree-Planting  Campaign 

If  a  town  has  an  organization  such  as  a  community 
club,  that  body  may  well  take  up  a  tree-planting  cam- 
paign. Where  no  such  organization  exists  it  will  be 
well  to  call  a  community  meeting  to  consider  the  tree 
life  of  the  town.  Whoever  takes  the  initiative  in  this 
movement  should  see  to  it  that  a  good  speaker  is 
secured  for  this  meeting.  He  need  not  have  technical 
knowledge  about  forestry,  but  should  be  able  to  arouse 
enthusiasm  in  the  interests  of  the  campaign. 

At  this  meeting  a  committee  should  be  chosen  to 
plan  for  a  Community  Tree-Planting  Day  (or  days). 

This  committee  should  list  the  institutions  and  or- 
ganizations that  will  cooperate  in  the  campaign,  and, 
if  possible,  get  the  active  interest  of  every  organiza- 
tion in  town. 

Knowledge  should  be  secured  with  regard  to  the  tree 
needs  of  the  community.  What  churches  desire  to 
plant  trees  in  the  church  yard?  What  planting  should 
be  done  at  the  school  grounds?  What  street  planting 
is  needed?  What  planting  should  be  done  in  the  town 
park?  These  questions  cover  the  scope  of  the  facts 
that  will  be  secured  by  the  tree-planting  campaign  com- 
mittee. 

Organizations  (such  as  churches,  school  boards, 
etc.)  wishing  to  have  planting  done  at  their  grounds, 
and  also  the  town  governing  body  having  charge  of 


222  Rural  Organisation 

•_ 
parks  and  streets,  should  appoint  special  committees 

to  cooperate  with  the  central  committee  to  that  end. 

The  general  campaign  in  preparation  for  the  active 
planting  work  should  be  begun  by  at  least  January  1, 
so  that  by  planting  time  all  arrangements  will  be  fully 
matured. 

On  the  community  tree-planting  days  work  and  fes- 
tival features  should  be  properly  mingled.  The  town 
band  may  assemble  the  people  for  work,  and  play  at 
different  places  where  the  work  is  being  done  through 
the  day. 

On  the  evening  before  the  day  chosen,  a  program 
may  be  given  at  the  school  house.  The  stores  will  be 
closed  during  certain  hours  of  the  Tree-Planting  Day, 
so  that  merchants  and  clerks  may  help  in  the  work. 

A  community  basket  dinner,  served  by  the  women 
for  the  men  who  are  doing  the  work,  will  be  an  added 
feature  of  interest. 

The  main  thing  to  see  to  is  that  when  the  campaign 
is  all  over  trees  have  been  planted. 

After  the  campaign  the  trees  must  be  cared  for. 
This  responsibility  will  devolve  upon  the  organizations 
owning  the  property  upon  which  the  trees  have  been 
planted;  but  during  the  tree-planting  campaign  so 
much  emphasis  can  be  placed  upon  this  matter  of  car- 
ing for  trees  that  public  opinion  will  demand  such  con- 
tinuous care. 

The  distinctively  country  neighborhood  will  natu- 
rally center  the  community  tree-planting  campaign  at 
the  country  school  house.  Let  the  board  and  the 


Beautification  223 

teacher,  or  some  community  organization,  decide  upon 
conducting  the  campaign.  The  planting  of  trees  on 
the  school  grounds  will  be  the  special  end  in  view,  but 
the  school  children  will  also  be  urged  to  plant  trees  in 
their  home  yards. 

A  community  meeting  should  be  held  at  the  school 
house  early  in  the  year,  with  a  speaker  who  can  inspire 
the  people  and  awaken  community  interest  in  tree 
planting.  A  tree-planting  committee  should  be  ap- 
pointed at  this  meeting.  The  arranging  of  the  tree- 
planting  day  program  will,  of  course,  be  left  entirely 
to  the  school  teacher.  It  may  be  found  necessary,  too, 
for  the  school  children  to  give  one  or  two  entertain- 
ments during  the  winter  to  raise  money  to  purchase 
the  trees,  although  it  is  preferable  for  the  school  board 
to  appropriate  the  necessary  funds  for  that  purpose. 

Tree-planting  day  at  the  country  school  grounds 
should  be  made  an  all-day  affair.  A  big  community 
basket  dinner  should  be  served  at  noon  and  plenty  of 
time  given  for  social  enjoyment.  The  entertainment 
by  the  children  will  be  given  early  in  the  afternoon. 
In  the  earlier  forenoon  preparation  will  have  been  made 
for  the  planting,  and  immediately  after  the  entertain- 
ment the  planting  will  be  done. 

"Clean-up,  Paint-up"  Week 

A  "clean-up,  paint-up"  week  may  be  set  aside  for 
the  communities  of  a  state,  by  a  governor's  procla- 
mation, or  may  be  decided  upon  by  some  organization 


224  Rural  Organization 

of  the  state,  county,  or  local  community.  It  may  well 
be  undertaken  by  the  local  community  club,  perhaps 
in  connection  with  a  sanitation  campaign. 

Cases  are  on  record  in  which  entire  rural  com- 
munities "painted  themselves  white"  by  such  a  united 
effort.  In  such  a  community  the  white  lead  and  oil 
were  purchased  through  a  local  dealer,  without  profit 
to  him,  and  in  quantities.  Each  property  holder  de- 
posited his  prorata  of  the  full  amount,  so  that  the 
material  was  paid  for  in  advance.  During  "com- 
munity days"  the  neighbors  helped  each  other  in  the 
painting  job  until  they  had  made  themselves  a  one 
hundred  per  cent  "white"  community. 

Community  Lawn  and  Garden  Contest 

For  this  contest  a  committee  is  chosen  during  the 
autumn  season  to  list  those  who  intend  to  enter  the 
contest,  establish  the  community  area  from  which  con- 
testants will  be  accepted,  formulate  rules,  and  other- 
wise have  charge  of  the  contest.  Meetings  may  be  held 
during  the  winter  season,  in  which  instructive  lectures 
are  given  in  matters  of  preparing  the  soil,  planting,  and 
landscape  gardening. 

The  contest  should  be  opened  with  a  survey  to  make 
record  of  the  condition  of  the  premises  prior  to  the 
campaign,  and  closed  with  a  survey  to  ascertain  the 
progress  made.  The  prizes  should  be  awarded  on  the 
basis  of  progress  made,  and  not  of  best  appearance 
finally.  Also,  some  limit  should  be  made  to  the  amount 


Beautification  225 

of  money  to  be  expended  by  each  contestant,  or  a 
special  prize  offered  for  the  greatest  progress  made 
with  the  least  money  expenditure.  Unless  some  such 
provision  is  made,  the  well-to-do  will  have  too  great 
an  advantage  over  those  of  limited  means. 

The  prizes  should  be  in  the  nature  of  books  on 
landscape  gardening,  shrubs  or  bulbs  or  seeds  for 
planting,  or  tools  to  be  used  on  the  lawn  or  in  the 
flower  garden.  The  money  with  which  to  purchase 
these  prizes  may  be  raised  during  the  winter  season 
by  home  talent  plays  or  other  entertaining  features, 
thus  combining  the  recreational  activity  with  the  beau- 
tifying campaign. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  has  the  program  of  beautifying  the  city  advanced  more 

rapidly  than  that  of  beautifying  the  country? 

2.  What  advantages  has  the  rural  community  over  the  city  in 

opportunities  for  beautification  ? 

3.  Why  should  the  people  of  the  entire  agricultural  community 

be  interested  in  beautifying  the  town  or  city  center? 

4.  What    responsibility    have    city    people    in    beautifying    the 

country-side  ? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  unfortunate  contrasts  as  to  beautifica- 

tion where  town  and  country  do  not  cooperate? 

6.  Describe  a  Community  Beautifying  Day. 

7.  How  should  a  tree-planting  campaign  be  conducted? 

8.  Describe  a  "clean-up,  paint-up"  week. 

9.  What  is  a  community  lawn  and  garden  contest? 

RESEARCH  PROBLEMS 

1.   Have  the  people  of  the  town  and  country  in  this  community 
ever  cooperated  to  make  the  community  beautiful  ? 


226  Rural  Organisation 

2.  Are  there  unsightly  places  which  might  be  beautified? 

3.  Is  there  a  community  park?     If   so,   how  may  it  be   im- 

proved?   If  not,  how  may  one  be  secured  and  developed? 

4.  What  place  is  used  as  a  dumping  ground?     Is  this  the  best 

arrangement  that  could  be  made? 

5.  Are  the  church  and  school  grounds  attractive?    What  could 

be  done  to  improve  them? 

6.  Are  the  country  roadsides  kept  in  good  condition,  or  are 

they   overgrown  with  weeds?     How   could   they  be   im- 
proved ? 

7.  Are  the  cemetery  grounds  well  kept?     What  could  be  done 

to  further  beautify  the  cemetery? 

8.  Are  the  farm  yards  attractive  in  appearance?    Would  it  be 

feasible  to  launch  a  campaign  for  their  beautifying? 

9.  Do   the   trees   of    this    community   need   any   special    care? 

Should  more  be  planted? 

10.  Are  public  buildings  in  need  of  paint  and  repairs?     How 

can  such  improvement  be  brought  about? 

11.  Would  a  "clean-up,   paint-up"  week  be  practicable  in   this 

community  ? 


CHAPTER  V 

HOME-MAKING 

The  Community  Feature 

ALTHOUGH  home-making  has  much  to  do  with  eco- 
nomic life,  and  therefore  might  be  listed  as  one  of 
the  economic  functions,  it  is  more  convenient  to  dis- 
cuss it  as  one  of  the  community  social  functions  be- 
cause it  has  so  vitally  to  do  with  "happily  living  to- 
gether." It  is  not  the  intention  to  discuss  here  the 
home  as  an  institution,  nor  the  welfare  of  the  indi- 
vidual family,  but  home-making  as  a  community  func- 
tion. 

Parallel  with  all  other  Functions 

Since  homes  are  the  primary  social  units  of  which 
the  larger  social  unit  of  the  agricultural  community  is 
made,  the  developing  of  happy  homes  may  be  counted 
as  a  function  which  runs  parallel  with  all  of  those  for- 
merly treated.  Since  there  must  be  a  means  of  sup- 
port adequate  to  keep  household  standards  up  to  a 
generally  accepted  norm,  this  function  cannot  be  per- 
formed without  special  preliminary  attention  to  all 

227 


228  Rural  Organisation 

those  activities  which  we  have  listed  as  "economic 
functions."  With  the  close  relationship  and  interlock- 
ing personnel  of  the  home  and  the  school,  neither  can 
be  properly  developed  without  the  proper  development 
of  the  other.  Certainly  community  sanitation  and  com- 
munity beautification  can  not  function  except  with  the 
cooperation  of  the  home  and  with  happier  home  life 
as  one  objective. 

It  is  especially^  necessary  to  emphasize  the  impor- 

of  an  agricultural 


rormnnnifyT  .beraiise  in  a  very  peculiar  way  the  home 
is  so  strictly  a  part  of  all  other  community  life.  In 
the  big  city,  the_office  or  shop  is  far  distant  from  the 
hnrnpj^jitprpfnrp  the  bread  earner  usually  leaves  his 
business  or  trade  behind  him  when  he  leaves  his  place 
of  occupation.  The  other  members  of  the  family  are 
not  intimately  connected  with  the  business.  Not  so 
with  the  farm  home.  It  is  the  center  of  farm  business 
and  farm  life.  Every  member  of  the  family  is  vitally 
interested,  and  usually  all  are  workers  in  the  business 
itself.  If  there  is  an  office,  it  is  in  the  home.  It  is 
impossible  to  separate  the  farm  home  from  the  farm 
business.  Foj  this  very  reason  every  activity  in  the 
agricultural  community  rpngt  Hpa1  with  —  the—  family 
rather  than  with  thg^  individual  **  thp  ""'*  There  is 
not  primarily  a  "man's  work,"  or  a  "woman's  work," 
or  a  "boy's  work,"  or  a  "girl's  work,"  in  such  a  local- 
ity. Agencies  which  undertake  to  conduct  community 
work  in  the  agricultural  district  by  breaking  the  popu- 
lation up  into  such  groups  —  a  plan  which  is  decidedly 


Home-Making  229 

successful  in  the  city — will  find  their  work  coming  to 
a  speedy  failure ;  and  it  can  only  be  saved  by  reorganiz- 
ing on  the  basis  of  the  family  unit.  The  number  of 
beautiful,  healthy,  laughing  and  crying  babies  that  a 
speaker  always  finds  in  a  rural  audience  (even  if  it 
has  been  announced  that  he  will  speak  on  marketing) 
will  be  sufficient  proof  of  the  statement  that  the  farm 
family  moves  as  a  unit.  A  community  may  become 
noted  for  its  homes  just  as  truly  as  for  its  coopera- 
tive associations,  its  school,  and  its  church.  This  desir- 
able reputation  can  be  brought  about,  not  by  individual 
action  but  by  community  action. 

Men  and  Women  Alike  Interested 

It  is  difficult  to  see  why  only  the  women  of  a  com- 
munity should  be  interested  in  home-making.  The  men 
have  just  as  vital  a  connection  with  this  phase  of  liv- 
ing as  have  the  women,  and  much  of  the  success  or 
failure  of  the  lives  of  the  men  of  the  community  is 
dependent  upon  the  nature  of  the  homes  which  they 
make  or  unmake,  and  which  in  turn  make  or  unmake 
them. 

Home  Conveniences  a  Community  Asset 

One  of  the  attractive  forces  in  any  region  is  found 
in  the  modern  comforts  and  conveniences  in  the  up- 
to-date  home.  If  the  country  home  does  not  have  these, 
it  is  not  strange  that  the  first  prolonged  visit  of  the 


230  Rural  Organisation 

country  girl  in  a  city  home  where  they  do  have  them 
should  make  her  ever  after  dissatisfied  with  the  coun- 
try home.  But  her  parents  may  be  sufficiently  progres- 
sive and  wealthy  to  modernize  the  home ;  this  will  not 
be  sufficient  if  she  finds  that  the  common  run  of  homes 
in  the  section  where  she  lives  are  not  modern  and  the 
young  women  with  whom  she  associates  know  nothing 
about  such  conveniences  and  therefore  have  no  appre- 
ciation of  them.  It  will  not  be  sufficient,  therefore,  for 
a  family  here  and  there  to  modernize  the  country  home ; 
it  probably  will  result  in  further  dissatisfying  them 
with  their  unmodernized  surroundings.  It  must  come 
to  be  the  going  thing  to  have  all  the  modern  conveni- 
ences in  the  country  home. 

The  men  often  meet  to  see  the  demonstration  of 
some  labor-saving  implement,  and  when  they  have  dis- 
cussed the  matter  among  themselves  they  may  ship  in 
at  one  time  enough  of  such  implements  to  make  that 
the  going  way  of  doing  a  certain  type  of  farm  work 
in  that  neighborhood.  Why  should  not  the  men  and 
women  of  an  entire  community  meet  to  discuss  what 
is  the  system  of  household  conveniences  best  adapted 
to  that  region ;  and  then  group  their  activities  and  their 
money  in  bringing  in  and  establishing  those  conveni- 
ences? It  is  unfortunate  that  in  many  a  country  com- 
munity where  the  farm  implements  have  all  become 
riding  implements,  many  of  them  power  implements, 
and  many  of  them  with  a  sun  shade  over  the  driver — 
the  pump  used  by  the  woman  is  still  down  two  or 
three  steps  in  the  back  yard,  the  water  is  raised  by 


Home-Making  23 1 

hand  power,  the  toilet  is  many  rods  away,  the  dish- 
water is  carried  out  by  hand,  the  washing  and  churn- 
ing are  done  by  hand,  the  house  is  lighted  by  smoking 
lamps  that  require  constant  care — in  fact,  in  such  a 
region,  while  the  business  end  of  the  community  is 
well  along  into  the  twentieth  century,  the  home  end  of 
the  community  life  is  loafing  along  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  In  a  locality  of  high-priced  touring  cars,  pure- 
bred live-stock,  and  power  farm  machinery,  where 
antiquated  home  equipment  still  prevails,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  community,  as  such,  is  fatally  deficient  in  per- 
forming its  function  of  home-making. 

Home-making  is  both  the  origin  and  the  result  of 
agricultural  community  success.  It  is  the  germinating 
orill_ecoriomic  and  social  life  oLthe  community,  and 
the  flowering,£LLaILothejLj&^  processes. 

TYPICAL   ORGANIZATIONS   AND   PROJECTS 

Community  Kitchen 

The  rural  community  kitchen  is  a  common  center 
where  the  women  do  such  cooking  as  may  be  a  con- 
venient feature  of  their  organized  home  activities.  At 
Potwin,  Kansas,  the  Home-Makers'  Club  fostered  a 
community  house  project,  and  when  the  building  was 
constructed  they  gave  special  attention  to  the  kitchen 
and  dining-room  equipment.  At  this  place  they  meet 
to  do  their  canning  in  a  cooperative  way,  taking  out 
of  the  home  one  of  the  season's  greatest  pieces  of 


232  Rural  Organisation 

drudgery,  and  turning  the  canning  season  work  into 
an  educational  and  social  feature. 

The  Potwin  community  kitchen  and  dining-room 
serve  another  purpose  also  which  is  closely  related  to 
the  housekeeping  of  the  community:  it  is  the  com- 
mon assembling  place  for  all  organizations  wishing  to 
serve  banquets.  Instead  of  each  church  and  each  lodge 
and  other  organization  collecting  from  the  community 
enough  money  to  purchase  an  inadequate  equipment  of 
dishes  and  cooking  utensils,  the  organization  maintains 
a  common  collection  of  these,  which  are  at  the  service 
of  such  bodies.  Every  organization  is  saved  also  the 
expense  of  dining-room  and  kitchen,  since  these  rooms 
with  their  equipment  are  open  to  all  alike.  The  com- 
munity is  thus  given  a  thoroughly  equipped  kitchen 
and  dining-room,  at  a  central  place,  as  a  common  ex- 
pense to  and  convenience  for  all  local  organizations. 

Community  Drying  Plant  * 

Municipal  or  government-owned  drying  plants  have 
been  in  successful  operation  in  European  countries  for 
years.  Such  plants  provide  village  communities  with 
a  convenient  and  simple  method  of  drying  all  sorts  of 
produce  of  the  home  garden  and  orchard,  as  well  as 
the  vegetables  and  fruits  shipped  to  the  community, 
which  might  be  allowed  to  go  to  waste  at  the  stores 

*  Farmers'  Bulletin  916,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  by 
C.  W.  Pugsley. 


Home-Making  233 

and  market  places.  The  advantage  to  the  busy  farm- 
er's wife  in  the  country  community  can  not  be  over- 
estimated. Her  work  is  heaviest  in  the  summer  when 
vegetables  and  fruits  must  be  saved  for  winter  use. 
The  establishment  of  a  community  drying  plant  at  a 
consolidated  school,  country  church,  or  centrally  lo- 
cated farm  home  would  offer  a  great  relief  from  her 
heavy  kitchen  duties.  The  housewife  could  clean  and 
slice  at  least  a  portion  of  the  fruits  and  vegetables  she 
desires  to  conserve,  and  either  take  these  or  have  one 
of  the  children  take  them  to  the  community  drying 
plant,  where  they  could  be  left  until  it  was  convenient 
to  call  for  the  dried  product. 

Municipalities  might  well  establish  plants  from 
municipal  funds,  the  work  being  supervised  by  the 
city  council  or  other  town  authorities.  If  the  plant  is 
not  a  municipal  plant  it  is  best  to  place  it  under  the 
guidance  of  some  association  already  in  existence,  such 
as  a  civic  improvement  club,  commercial  club,  or  home- 
school-garden  club,  or  by  a  special  community  club 
organized  for  the  purpose. 

In  one  community  where  a  drying  plant  is  estab- 
lished, a  special  community  club,  of  approximately  60 
families,  has  been  organized,  primarily  to  look  after 
the  operation  of  the  drying  plant.  The  officers,  con- 
sisting of  president,  vice-president,  secretary,  and 
treasurer,  constitute  the  executive  committee,  and  are 
entrusted  with  power  to  act.  A  simple  form  of  con- 
stitution and  by-laws  was  adopted,  and  meetings  of  the 


234  Rural  Organization 

club  are  held  monthly,  or  oftener,  usually  at  the  dry- 
ing plant,  which  in  this  community  is  in  a  room  of  a 
church  building. 

Whether  the  plant  is  operated  by  a  municipality  or 
by  a  community  club,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  care- 
taker who  will  be  at  the  plant  during  certain  hours  of 
the  day  to  receive  and  deliver  fruit  and  vegetables,  to 
keep  the  plant  in  proper  condition,  and  to  keep  the 
fan  and  motor  running.  Usually  it  is  best  to  have  the 
plant  open  to  the  public  from  two  to  four  hours  a  day, 
say  from  ten  to  twelve  o'clock  in  the  mornings  and 
from  four  to  six  o'clock  in  the  afternoons.  The  care- 
taker should  live  near  the  plant.  In  case  a  community 
plant  is  established  in  a  country  district,  it  would  be 
well  to  have  the  plant  located  at  the  home  of  the  care- 
taker. 

The  caretakers  may  be  paid  by  the  hour  for  their 
services,  and  the  money  may  be  obtained  by  making  a 
charge  of  from  two  to  five  cents  a  tray  for  the  privi- 
lege of  drying.  Unless  the  motor  power  is  supplied 
by  the  municipality,  club,  or  some  public-spirited  indi- 
vidual, it  is  necessary  to  make  this  charge  sufficiently 
large  to  cover  the  cost  of  operating  the  motor. 

The  Community  Laundry 

One  of  the  great  household  drudgeries  is  the  wash- 
ing. Farmers  in  the  neighborhood  of  Milltown  and 
Fall  River,  Wis.,  set  about  to  find  a  way  whereby  the 


Home-Making  235 

wife  could  be  relieved  of  this  drudgery.  They  found 
it  in  a  community  laundry  operated  in  conjunction 
with  a  creamery. 

The  laundry  of  the  customers  is  sent  to  the  laundry, 
usually  on  the  wagon  used  to  haul  the  cream  cans,  and 
is  returned  the  same  way  one  to  four  days  later.  Wash- 
ing is  done  for  the  customers  on  an  average  of  once 
a  week.  The  cream  haulers  neither  expect  nor  receive 
extra  compensation  for  delivery  and  collection  of  the 
laundry. 

Some  work  is  sent  to  these  laundries  by  parcel  post 
and  express.  Much  work  is  done  for  people  who  do 
not  send  milk  or  cream  to  the  creamery.  The  laundries 
are  in  operation  every  day.  None  of  the  employees  of 
the  creameries  has  anything  to  do  with  the  laundry 
work  except  where  one  manager  may  have  supervision 
of  both  establishments  and  thus  cut  down  managerial 
expenses. 

As  the  plants  are  in  separate  buildings,  there  is  no 
odor  in  the  creamery  from  the  laundry.  When  the 
two  plants  are  built  close  together  or  adjoining,  the 
same  boiler  furnishes  steam  to  both  and  cuts  down  ex- 
pense of  an  extra  engine-room  force. 

The  laundry  accounts  are  kept  separate  from  the 
creamery  accounts,  but  one  of  the  plants  is  working 
out  a  plan  whereby  the  charge  for  laundry  work  can 
be  deducted  from  the  milk  or  cream  check.  Of  course 
this  can  be  done  only  when  the  farmer  is  a  customer 
of  both  creamery  and  laundry. 


236  Rural  Organisation 

Home  Utensils  Loan  Group 

In  this  project  an  organization  of  rural  women  raises 
the  money  for  the  purchase  of  certain  household  con- 
veniences, such  as  the  pressure  cooker.  Each  such  pos- 
session of  the  club  is  loaned  to  a  member,  to  give  that 
member  opportunity  to  experiment  with  and  learn  the 
use  of  it,  looking  toward  its  purchase.  If  that  member 
purchases  the  article,  the  money  so  received  by  the 
club  goes  back  into  the  revolving  fund  to  secure  other 
utensils  or  conveniences  for  further  trial  use  and  final 
purchase.  In  this  way  the  families  of  an  entire  com- 
munity may  become  familiar  with  the  uses  of  modern 
home  equipment. 

Clothing  Project 

A  combination  of  an  extension  school  with  the  co- 
operative securing  of  a  convenient  device  for  making 
clothing  more  inexpensive  and  better  fitting  is  related 
in  a  recent  report  of  a  home  demonstration  agent: 

"The  dressmaking  school  at  Greeley  closed  with  five 
dress  forms  finished.  Nine  others  had  been  ordered 
and  three  of  them  have  since  arrived.  A  day  was  spent 
overseeing  the  work  of  padding  two  of  these  forms 
and  making  sure  that  the  fourteen  dresses  begun  and 
in  most  cases  nearly  completed  in  the  school  were  fin- 
ished and  wearable.  Two  of  the  pupils  of  the  school 
have  helped  to  make  three  other  dress  forms  for 
women  unable  to  attend  the  school.  All  of  the  girls 


Home-Making  237 

and  women  who  have  the  forms  are  enthusiastic  as 
to  their  convenience  and  insist  they'll  never  keep  house 
without  their  'Janes.' 

"The  bride  pupil  of  the  school,  and  incidentally  the 
most  expert  needlewoman  of  the  group,  told  the  home 
demonstration  agent  that  she  had  never  learned  so 
much  in  a  like  length  of  time  as  she  did  at  the  dress- 
making school,  so  many  short  cuts,  and  nice  ways  of 
doing  things.  Several  of  her  friends  have  tried  to  buy 
the  dress  that  she  made  at  the  school. 

"The  first  lecture  demonstration  lesson  was  given  to 
the  women  of  the  Ernest  neighborhood  by  the  home 
demonstration  agent.  Since  most  of  them  sew  fairly 
well,  the  discussion  reviewed  stitches,  seams  and  sew- 
ing terminology  and  ended  with  a  questionnaire  and 
free-for-all  discussion  of  the  finer  points  in  finishing. 

"The  home  demonstration  agent  made  paper  models 
for  plackets,  bound  buttonholes,  slot  pockets  and  one 
or  two  other  of  the  more  complicated  finishing  stunts. 
Two  requests  for  paper  models  of  slot  pockets  have 
since  come  to  the  office.  The  July  lesson  will  be  on 
textile  testing,  at  the  request  of  the  women  themselves. 
Four  more  communities  have  asked  for  work  along 
the  same  line." 


A  number  of  farmers  and  their  families  near  Jar- 
balo,  Leavenworth  County,  Kansas,  have  for  sixteen 
years  been  enjoying  a  summer  luxury  which  might 


238  Rural  Organization 

well  make  them  the  envy  of  city  flat  dwellers.  An 
abundance  of  fresh  beef  all  summer  at  the  actual  cost 
of  production — this  is  the  luxury  that  the  Jarbalo  farm 
families  have  been  enjoying  through  a  little  common- 
sense  management  and  neighborhood  cooperation. 

The  neighborhood  beef  club  has  appeared  in  many 
localities  throughout  the  Middle  West  during  the  past 
few  years,  and  its  popularity  adds  interest  to  an  ac- 
count of  the  way  in  which  one  of  the  oldest  organiza- 
tions of  this  sort  has  carried  on  this  work  success- 
fully. 

The  organization  of  such  a  club  is  very  simple — 
and  the  simpler  it  can  be  made  the  better.  The  Jar- 
balo club  depends  upon  a  verbal  agreement  among  the 
members,  but  some  other  clubs  find  it  preferable  to 
draw  up  a  written  agreement.  Whether  verbal  or  writ- 
ten, the  Jarbalo  experiment  has  indicated  that  there 
must  be  a  definite  understanding  beforehand  on  cer- 
tain details. 

A  butcher  must  be  selected  from  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  club.  Sometimes  this  task  is  rotated  week 
by  week,  but  the  beef  dub  at  Jarbalo,  after  sixteen 
years'  experience,  has  found  it  preferable  to  delegate 
one  person  as  butcher  throughout  an  entire  summer 
season.  Payment  of  the  butcher  must  be  agreed  upon, 
and  in  the  Jarbalo  club  this  has  been  satisfactorily 
arranged  by  allowing  the  butcher  to  retain  the  hides 
as  his  remuneration. 

It  is  agreed  that  each  member  shall  furnish  during 


Home-Making 

the  summer  season  one  steer  or  heifer  of  certain  age 
and  weight,  the  animal  to  be  provided  during  the  week 
determined  upon  by  the  group.  The  beeves  butchered 
by  the  Jarbalo  club  average  about  300  pounds  each 
dressed.  The  time  for  furnishing  the  beef  is  estab- 
lished by  lot  at  the  preliminary  meeting  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  season. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  season  a  price  is  agreed  upon 
as  the  basis  of  final  adjustment.  The  price  agreed 
upon  in  1918  by  the  Jarbalo  club  was  only  eighteen 
cents,  or  about  half  the  selling  price  of  beef  at  the 
Leavenworth  meat  markets. 

Each  carcass  is  weighed  when  dressed,  and  the  mem- 
ber furnishing  it  is  credited  with  the  amount.  Each 
week  the  members  receive  approximately  equal  por- 
tions, each  portion  being  weighed,  and  an  accurate  ac- 
count kept.  At  the  end  of  the  season  a  settlement  is 
made  on  the  basis  of  the  price  formerly  agreed  upon. 

The  most  conveniently  managed  club  is  one  in  which 
the  number  of  members  equals  the  number  of  weeks 
during  which  the  group  is  to  operate.  Also  this  should 
be  such  a  number  as  will  make  a  convenient  number 
of  beef  cuts  during  the  season.  The  Jarbalo  club  has 
twelve  members,  but  some  other  clubs  find  it  more 
convenient  to  have  sixteen  members. 

Community  Ice  Club 

Ice  is  a  great  luxury  in  the  farm  home,  but  often  it 
is  not  possible  for  the  individual  farmer  to  equip  so 


240  Rural  Organisation 

that  his  family  can  enjoy  this  luxury.  Often,  too,  in 
certain  sections,  the  season  for  cutting  ice  is  short, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  secure  the  necessary  labor  while 
it  is  timely.  Then,  a  large  quantity  of  ice  can  be  kept 
better  through  the  summer  than  can  a  small  amount. 

Near  Longford,  Kansas,  a  group  of  farmers, 
through  cooperative  effort,  have  enjoyed  the  luxury 
of  ice  in  the  home  for  a  number  of  years.  They  con- 
structed a  good  cement  ice  house,  within  easy  reach 
of  a  stream.  They  purchased  cooperatively  the  neces- 
sary tools  for  cutting  and  storing  the  ice,  and  when 
it  was  ready  to  cut  they  went  together  to  the  stream, 
worked  in  a  group,  and  afterwards  hauled  the  ice  and 
filled  their  own  ice  house. 

In  this  particular  group  they  have  found  no  neces- 
sity for  written  forms  of  organization;  they  have  sim- 
ply worked  together  until  they  entirely  filled  the  ice 
house,  and  then  during  the  summer  each  has  taken  all 
of  the  ice  he  wanted  for  his  own  use. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  that  a  considerable 
saving  is  being  made  in  the  homes  where  this  luxury 
is  found — a  saving  in  being  able  to  keep  quantities 
of  food  through  the  hot  summer  days,  and  to  have  a 
variety  which  otherwise  could  not  be  enjoyed  in  the 
summer  time.  Then,  with  an  abundance  of  milk  and 
eggs,  ice  cream,  which  is  an  expensive  luxury  to  city 
dwellers,  becomes  an  ordinary  dessert  to  families  co- 
operating in  this  farmers'  ice  club. 


Home-Making  241 

The  Home-Makers'  Club 

As  the  name  signifies,  the  home-makers'  club  is  an 
organization  of  women  who  are  interested  in  more 
efficient  home-making.  The  club  is  in  cooperative  re- 
lationship with  the  State  Agricultural  College,  and  re- 
ceives helpful  suggestions  and  aid  from  that  source. 
It  often  becomes  the  local  agency  for  leaders  from 
that  center  in  arranging  various  home  economics  proj- 
ects for  the  community.  In  certain  states,  programs 
for  monthly  meetings  are  sent  out  from  the  college, 
with  helps  for  the  development  of  papers  on  various 
subjects  having  to  do  with  home  improvement. 

Community  Canning  Club 

During  the  Kansas  Farm  and  Home  Week  in  Febru- 
ary, 1917,  a  farm  woman,  Mrs.  J.  M.  Timmons,  in 
an  address,  gave  the  particulars  of  the  Glenwood  Com- 
munity Canning  Club,  organized  in  Leavenworth 
County,  Kansas.  She  stated  that  the  club  was  organ- 
ized in  June,  1915,  and  started  with  twelve  teams, 
each  team  composed  of  a  "mother  and  a  daughter," 
all  from  farm  homes.  The  meetings  of  the  club  were 
held  once  a  month,  and  from  the  first  were  successful 
in  a  social  way  as  well  as  instructive.  Canning  demon- 
strations were  frequently  held,  and  to  these  were  al- 
ways invited  all  who  were  interested,  whether  club 
members  or  not.  A  number  of  women  who  were  not 


242  Rural  Organization 

members  thus  received  the  instruction  and  used  it,  al- 
though their  work  was  not  recorded  as  club  work. 

"In  November,"  said  Mrs.  Timmons,  "we  had  our 
first  exhibit  in  the  church.  It  consisted  of  about 
400  jars.  Much  interest  was  aroused  by  this  exhibit, 
and  when  it  was  time  to  plan  for  the  coming  year,  the 
interest  had  grown  to  such  an  extent  that  it  became 
necessary  to  organize  on  a  new  plan.  Our  member- 
ship increased  to  sixty,  including  women  and  girls, 
over  a  territory  of  eight  or  ten  miles,  and  represent- 
ing three  school  districts.  We  have  six  officers — two 
in  each  neighborhood.  Getting  together,  becoming 
acquainted,  and  working  together  with  a  common  aim, 
that  of  encouraging  cooperation  among  the  communi- 
ties, I  consider  one  of  the  finest  things  in  the  club  work. 
Many  are  our  neighbors  and  friends  whom  we  scarcely 
knew  before,  and  we  are  becoming  one  big  community 
instead  of  three.  Our  girls  are  being  brought  up  to 
take  more  interest  in  their  homes  and  work  and  are 
proud  of  their  knowledge  of  canning. 

"There  is  much  more  to  the  club  work  than  putting 
products  in  jars.  It  brings  us  in  close  touch  with  the 
State  Agricultural  College,  and  we  are  constantly  re- 
ceiving new  ideas  for  improving  our  methods  of  work 
along  many  lines  besides  canning,  which  we  will  take 
up  in  our  next  year's  work.  We  have  held  regular 
meetings  during  the  year,  sometimes  canning,  and 
sometimes  arranging  an  all-day  picnic  to  which  we  in- 
vited all  who  could  attend.  The  most  important  of 
these  picnics  was  held  last  September,  when  we  invited 


Home-Making  243 

the  members  of  the  Commercial  Club  of  Leavenworth 
to  take  dinner  with  us.  One  hundred  and  twenty-five 
of  them  came,  bringing  along  a  brass  band.  There  was 
also  a  large  crowd  of  farmers  and  their  families,  and 
a  time  long  to  be  remembered  was  enjoyed  by  all. 

"In  December  our  exhibit  was  taken  to  Leaven- 
worth,  where  it  was  on  display  for  three  days.  A  spe- 
cial car  was  provided  by  the  Commercial  Club  for  the 
exhibit,  also  for  the  members  of  the  club,  and  all  ex- 
penses were  paid  while  in  Leavenworth.  Twenty-three 
hundred  jars  were  shown  there. 

"Many  good  things  have  grown  out  of  the  club 
work.  One,  destined  to  be  of  great  importance,  is  a 
community  club  composed  of  the  members  of  the  Farm 
Bureau.  Many  new  members  have  been  added  to  the 
Farm  Bureau  through  the  interest  in  the  canning  club 
work.  This  new  club  will  include  men  and  women, 
boys  and  girls,  and  will  take  up  many  things  of  inter- 
est along  agricultural  lines  and  will  cooperate  in  many 
ways  to  the  mutual  advantage  of  all." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  home  making  a  community  function? 

2.  What  is  the  relationship  between  home-making  as  a  social 

function,  and  the  economic  functions? 

3.  Why  is  the  farm  home  so  closely  connected  with  the  farm 

business  ? 

4.  Why  is  the  family  the  unit  in  the  rural  community,  rather 

than  the  individual? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  special  advantages  of  modernizing  the 

homes  of  a  rural  community? 

6.  What  is  a  community  kitchen? 


244  Rural  Organization 

7.  Describe  a  home-makers'  club;   a  canning  club. 

8.  What  is  a  community  drying  plant? 

9.  Describe   the    organization    and    conduct    of    a    community 

laundry. 

10.  Outline  suggestions  for  the  following  organizations :  Home 
utensils  loan  group;  Neighborhood  beef  club;  Community 
ice  club. 

RESEARCH  PROBLEMS 

1.  What  percentage   of   the  homes   of   this   community  have 

modern  conveniences?  How,  through  a  community  move- 
ment, might  all  homes  be  modernized? 

2.  On  the  farms,  what  percentage  of  the  families  that  have 

modern  farm  machinery  do  not  have  modern  home  con- 
veniences? What  reason  is  ordinarily  given  for  such  a 
situation  ? 

3.  Since  farm  families  move  as  families,  and  this  has  a  bearing 

on  town  trade  days,  does  the  town  have  a  rest  room  for 
country  mothers  and  children? 

4.  Would  a  community  kitchen  be  practicable? 

5.  Do  the  women's  clubs  function  in  the  work  of  home  making, 

or  is  there  need  of  a  "home-makers'"  club  for  that  pur- 
pose? 

6.  Would  any  of  the  following  serve  good  purposes  in  this  com- 

munity: a  canning  club;  a  drying  plant;  community 
laundry;  home  utensils  loan  group;  beef  club;  ice  club; 
dressmaking  schools  and  cooking  schools? 


APPENDIX 

CONSTITUTION  AND  BY-LAWS  FOR  A 
COMMUNITY  CLUB 

ARTICLE  I.—  NAME 

The  name  of  this  club  shall  be  The  .......... 

Community  Club. 

ARTICLE  II.—  OBJECT 

The  object  of  this  club  shall  be  to  conduct  public 
meetings  for  the  presentation  and  open  discussion  of 
the  functions  for  development  and  to  bring  such  func- 
tions to  successful  operation. 

ARTICLE  III.—  MEMBERSHIP 


1.   Associate  Members.   Every  person  liv- 
ing in  the  vicinity  of  ......  .  .  is  considered  an  asso- 

ciate member  of  this  club. 

SEC.    2.    Active   Members.     Any   person   eighteen 
years  of  age  or  over,  living  in  the  vicinity  of  ....,...., 

is  eligible  to  become  an  active  member  of  this  club 
upon  giving  his  or  her  name  to  any  member  of  the 
Executive  Committee. 

ARTICLE  IV.—  OFFICERS  AND  ELECTIONS 
SECTION  1.    There  shall  be  the  following  officers: 
245 


246  Appendix 

President,  first,  second  and  third  vice-presidents,  secre- 
tary, and  treasurer. 

SEC.  2.    The  officers  shall  be  elected  at  the  annual 

meeting  of  the  club,  which  shall  be  held  on , 

to  serve  for  a  term  of  one  year  each.  Only  active  mem- 
bers will  be  allowed  to  vote  for  officers,  and  only  active 
members  are  eligible  to  office. 

ARTICLE  V.— DUTIES  OF  OFFICERS 

SECTION  1.  President.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
president  to  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  club,  and 
also  to  serve  as  chairman  of  the  Executive  Committee 
of  the  club. 

SEC.  2.  First  V ice-President.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  first  vice-president  to  preside  at  the  meetings  of 
the  club  in  the  absence  or  at  the  request  of  the  presi- 
dent. He  shall  also  be  chairman  of  the  Program  Com- 
mittee. 

SEC.  3.  Second  Vice-President.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  second  vice-president  to  serve  as  chairman  of 
the  Economic  Improvement  Committee  of  the  club. 

SEC.  4.  Third  V ice-President.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  third  vice-president  to  serve  as  chairman  of  the 
Social  Improvement  Committee  of  the  club. 

SEC.  5.  Secretary.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  secre- 
tary to  keep  the  minutes  of  the  proceedings  of  the  club; 
to  keep  a  list  of  active  members;  to  receive  names  of 
new  members ;  to  carry  on  correspondence  for  the  club, 
and  to  fulfill  such  other  duties  as  usually  pertain  to 
this  office. 


Appendix  247 

SEC.  6.  Treasurer.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  treas- 
urer to  collect  and  disburse  the  money  of  the  club;  to 
keep  a  record  of  all  money  received,  sent,  and  on  hand; 
and  to  report  upon  the  state  of  the  treasury  at  the 
annual  meeting,  or  whenever  called  upon  to  do  so. 

ARTICLE  VI.— COMMITTEES 

There  shall  be  four  committees  of  the  club,  namely : 
the  Executive  Committee,  the  Program  Committee, 
the  Economic  Improvement  Committee,  and  the  Social 
Improvement  Committee. 

SECTION  1.  Executive  Committee.  The  Executive 
Committee  shall  consist  of  the  elected  officers  of  the 
club.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  this  committee  to  confer 
upon  questions  regarding  the  welfare  of  the  club,  to 
consider  and  recommend  matters  of  importance  to  the 
club,  and  in  unusual  matters,  requiring  haste,  to  act 
for  the  club. 

SEC.  2.  Program  Committee.  The  Program  Com- 
mittee shall  consist  of  the  first  vice-president  of  the 
club  and  two  other  members  chosen  by  him.  It  shall 
be  the  duty  of  this  committee  to  arrange  programs  for 
all  of  the  meetings  of  the  club,  to  secure  speakers,  and 
to  suggest  topics  of  discussion  which  shall  assure  prof-, 
itable  and  interesting  meetings,  to  promote  the  pub- 
licity of  the  club  through  the  local  newspapers,  the 
announcement  of  programs  of  the  meetings  of  the  club, 
and  otherwise  to  carry  on  the  work  of  publicity  for 
the  club. 


248  Appendix 

SEC.  3.  Economic  Improvement  Committee.  The 
Economic  Improvement  Committee  shall  consist  of 
the  second  vice-president  and  four  other  members  ap- 
pointed by  him.  This  committee  shall  have  supervision 
of  projects  pertaining  to  the  economic  functioning  of 
the  community. 

SEC.  4.  Social  Improvement  Committee.  The  Social 
Improvement  Committee  shall  consist  of  the  third  vice- 
president  and  four  other  members  appointed  by  him. 
This  committee  shall  have  supervision  of  projects  per- 
taining to  the  social  functioning  of  the  community. 

ARTICLE  VII.— MEETINGS 

The  club  shall  hold  regular  meetings  each  ......... 

evening,  in  the  . ., ,  between  the  hours  of  7  :30 

and  10  o'clock. 

ARTICLE  VIII.— DUES 

The  dues  of  the  club  shall  be   (not  less 

than  25  cents)  per  year  for  each  active  member,  to 
aid  in  meeting  the  local  expenses  of  the  organization. 

ARTICLE  IX.— QUORUM 

Eight  active  members  of  the  club  shall  constitute  a 
quorum  for  the  transaction  of  all  business. 

ARTICLE  X.— AMENDMENTS 

The  constitution  may  be  amended  by  two-thirds 
vote  of  the  active  members  present  at  any  regular 
meeting. 


'Appendix  249 

ORDER  OF  BUSINESS  AND  BY-LAWS 

The  order  of  business  in  all  regular  meetings  of  the 
club  shall  be  as  follows : 

1.  Social  half  hour. 

2.  Call  to  order. 

3.  Song. 

4.  Reading  minutes  of  previous  meeting. 

5.  Reports  of  special  committees. 

6.  Reports  of  standing  committees. 

7.  Treasurer's  report. 

8.  Unfinished  business. 

9.  New  business. 

10.  Special  program. 

11.  Discussion. 

12.  Adjournment. 

1.  The  meeting  shall  be  called  to  order  as  early  as 
7  :45  p.  m.,  so  that  the  business  routine  may  be  disposed 
of  and  the  speaker  of  the  evening  may  be  introduced  not 
later  than  fifteen  minutes  past  eight.    The  main  ad- 
dress should  be  finished  and  the  subject  thrown  open 
for  general  discussion  at  or  before  nine  o'clock.    This 
discussion  should  not  last  longer  than  thirty  minutes, 
and  should  close  with  a  ten-minute  summing  up  by 
the  speaker. 

2.  The  chairman  of  the  meeting  may  leave  the  chair 
in  order  to  engage  in  discussion. 

3.  In  speaking  from  the  floor  in  the  open  discussion 
which   follows   the  main   address,   the   parliamentary 


250  Appendix 

rules,  of  addressing  the  chair,  etc.,  should  be  strictly 
followed. 

4.  Speeches  from  the  floor  are  limited  to  five  min- 
utes, and  the  time  may  be  extended  only  by  unanimous 
consent. 

5.  No  speaker  may  have  the  floor  a  second  time,  un- 
less all  others  who  wish  to  speak  have  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  do  so. 

6.  Speeches  from  the  floor  must  deal  with  the  sub- 
ject chosen  for  discussion. 


A     000595017     5 


*|Hl  I/, 

SOUTHERN  BRANCH 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

LIBRARY, 

<LQS  AMQELES.  CALIF. 


